Biodiesel in India

Field trials of biodiesel: Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) began in January 2004, field trials of running buses on biodiesel – diesel doped with 5% BioDisesl made from non-edible oils. Haryana Roadways buses would be used for the project. About 450 kilolitres of bio-diesel would be used in the pilot project. Vehicles engine would not require any modification for use of bio-diesel. Already automobile manufacturers like Mahindra and Mahindra and Ashok Leyland have tried biodiesel mix as fuel for their vehicles. Meanwhile planning commission has asked states to grow more of Jatropha and Karanj on wasteland and semi rain fed areas.
The first successful trial run of the Amritsar-Shatabdi Express conducted by the Indian Railways using biodiesel has been an encouraging development.

1 Introduction: Biodiesel is methyl or ethyl ester of fatty acid made from virgin or used vegetable oils (both edible & non-edible) and animal fats. The main commodity sources for biodiesel in India can be non-edible oils obtained from plant species such as Jatropha Curcas (Ratanjyot), Pongamia Pinnata (Karanj), Calophyllum inophyllum (Nagchampa), Hevca brasiliensis (Rubber) etc. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend or can be used in its pure form. Just like petroleum diesel, biodiesel operates in compression ignition (diesel) engine; which essentially require very little or no engine modifications because biodiesel has properties similar to petroleum diesel fuels. It can be stored just like the petroleum diesel fuel and hence does not require separate infrastructure. The use of biodiesel in conventional diesel engines results in substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matters. Biodiesel is considered clean fuel since it has almost no sulphur, no aromatics and has about 10 % built-in oxygen, which helps it to burn fully. Its higher cetane number improves the ignition quality even when blended in the petroleum diesel.
New vehicles (except 2 and 3 wheelers) compliance of Bharat Stage II emission norms are to be enforced in the entire country from 1.4.2005 and Euro III equivalent norms by 1.4.2010. In addition to 4 metros where Bharat Stage II norms are already in place, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra should also meet this norm from 1.4.2003. The four metros and the other seven cities should comply with Euro III and Euro IV equivalent emission norms from 1.4.2005 and 1.4.2010 respectively. The 2 and 3 wheelers should conform to Bharat Stage II norms from 1.4.2005 all over the country and Bharat Stage III norms preferably from 1.4.2008 but not later than 2010. For new vehicles, a drastic reduction in sulphur content (< 350 ppm) and higher cetane number (>51) will be required in the petroleum diesel produced by Indian Refineries. Biodiesel meets these two important specifications and would help in improving the lubricity of low sulphur diesel. The present specification of flash point for petroleum diesel is 35°C which is lower than all the countries in the world (>55°C). Biodiesel will help in raising the flash point, a requirement of safety.
B20 (a blend of 20 percent by volume biodiesel with 80 percent by volume petroleum diesel) has demonstrated significant environmental benefits in US with a minimum increase in cost for fleet operations and other consumers. Biodiesel is registered as a fuel and fuel additive with the US Environmental Protection Agency and meets clean diesel standards established by the California Air Resources Board. Neat (100 percent) biodiesel has been designated as an alternative fuel by the Department of Energy and the Department of Transportation of US. Studies conducted with biodiesel on engines have shown substantial reduction in Particulate matter (25–50%). However, a marginal increase in NOx (1-6%) is also reported; but it can be taken care of either by optimization of engine parts or by using De-NOx catalyst (De-NOx catalyst will be necessary for Bharat-III / IV compliant engines). HC and CO emissions were also reported to be lower. Non-regulated emissions like PAH etc were also found to be lower.
Biodiesel has been accepted as clean alternative fuel by US and its production presently is about 100 million Gallons. Each State has passed specific bills to promote the use of biodiesel by reduction of taxes. Sunflower, rapeseed etc. is the raw material used in Europe whereas soya bean is used in USA. Thailand uses palm oil, Ireland uses frying oil and animal fats. Due to its favorable properties, biodiesel can be used as fuel for diesel engines (as either B5-a blend of 5% biodiesel in petroleum diesel fuel or B20 or B100).
USA uses B20 and B100 biodiesel. France uses B5 as mandatory in all diesel fuel. It can also be used as an additive to reduce the overall sulfur content of blend and to compensate for lubricity loss due to sulfur removal from diesel fuel. The viscosity of biodiesel is higher (1.9 to 6.0 cSt) and is reported to result into gum formation on injector, cylinder liner etc if used in neat form. However, blends of up to 20% should not give any problem. While an engine can be designed for 100% biodiesel use, the existing engines can use 20% biodiesel blend without any modification and reduction in torque output. In USA, 20% biodiesel blend is being used, while in European countries 5-15% blends have been adopted.

2 Biodiesel as an option for Energy Security: India ranks sixth in the world in terms of energy demand accounting for 3.5% of world commercial energy demand in 2001.The energy demand is expected to grow at 4.8%. A large part of India’s population, mostly in the rural areas, does not have access to it. At 479 kg of oil equivalent the per capita, energy consumption is very low. Hence a program for the development of energy from raw material which grows in the rural areas will go a long way in providing energy security to the rural people.
The growth in energy demand in all forms is expected to continue unabated owing to increasing urbanization, standard of living and expanding population with stabilization not before mid of the current century. The demand of Diesel (HSD) is projected to grow from 39.81 million metric tons in 2001-02 to 52.32 million metric tons in 2006-07 @5.6% per annum. Our crude oil production as per the Tenth Plan Working Group is estimated to hover around 33-34 million metric tons per annum even though there will be increase in gas production from 86 million standard cubic meters per day (2002-03) to 103 million standard cubic meters per day in (2006-07). Only with joint venture abroad there is a hope of oil production to increase to 41 million metric tons by (2016-17). The gas production would decline by this period to 73 million standard cubic meters per day. The increasing gap between demand and domestically produced petroleum is a matter of serious concern.
In other words, our dependence on import of oil will increase in the foreseeable future. The Working Group has estimated import of crude oil to go up from 85 million metric tons per annum to 147 million metric tons per annum by the end of 2006-07 correspondingly increasing the import bill from $ 13.3 billion to $ 15.7 billion. Transport sector remains the most problematic sector as no alternative to petroleum based fuel has been successful so far. Hence petroleum based fuels especially petroleum diesel (HSD) will continue to dominate the transport sector in the foreseeable future but their consumption can be minimized by implementation of Biodiesel program expeditiously. Targets need to be set up for biodiesel production to achieve blending ratios of 5, 10 and 20 percent in phased manner. The estimated biodiesel requirements for blending with petroleum diesel over the period of next 5 years are given in Table 1:

Biodiesel requirement for blending

3 Feasibility of producing biodiesel as diesel substitute: While the country is short of petroleum reserve, it has large arable land as well as good climatic conditions (tropical) with adequate rainfall in large parts of the area to account for large biomass production each year. For the reason of edible oil demand being higher than its domestic production, there is no possibility of diverting this oil for production of biodiesel. Fortunately there is a large junk of degraded forest land and unutilized public land, field boundaries and fallow lands of farmers where non-edible oil-seeds can be grown. There are many tree species which bear seeds rich in oil. Of these some promising tree species have been evaluated and it has been found that there are a number of them such as Jatropha curcas and Pongamia Pinnata (‘Honge’ or ‘Karanja’) which would be very suitable in our conditions. However, Jatropha curcas has been found most suitable for the purpose. It will use lands which are largely unproductive for the time being and are located in poverty stricken areas and in degraded forests. It will also be planted on farmers’ field boundaries and fallow lands. They will also be planted in public lands such as along the railways, roads and irrigation canals.
Proposed Jatropha Plantation: Jatropha curcas has been found the most suitable tree specie for the reasons summarized below:

• It can be grown as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land situations viz. degraded and barren lands under forest and non-forest use, dry and drought prone areas, marginal lands and as agroforestry crop. It can be planted on fallow lands and along farmers field boundaries as hedge because it does not grow too tall as well as on vacant lands alongside railways, highways, irrigation canals and unused lands in townships etc. under Public/Private Sector Undertakings.

• The seeds of Jatropha are available during the non-rainy season, which facilitates better collection and processing. The cost of plantation is largely incurred in the first year and improved planting material can make a huge difference in yield.

• Raising Jatropha plant and its maintenance creates jobs for the rural poor, particularly the landless, in plantation and primary processing through expellers.

• It has multiple uses and after the extraction of oil from the seeds, the oil cake left behind is an excellent organic manure, the bio mass of Jatropha curcas enriches the soil and it can also be put to other uses.

• Retains soil moisture and improve land capability and environment.

• Jatropha adds to the capital stock of the farmers and the community, for sustainable generation of income and employment.

Economics of Jatropha biodiesel: In India, it is estimated that cost of Bio-Diesel produced by trans-esterification of oil obtained from Jatropha Curcas oil-seeds shall be approximately same as that of petro-diesel. On The cost of Bio-diesel varies between Rs. 16.59 –14.98 per litre. Assumptions are that the seed contains 35% oil, oil extraction will be 91-92%, 1.05 Kg of oil will be required to produce 1 Kg of Biodiesel, recovery from sale of glycerol will be at the rate of Rs. 40-60 per Kg. The price of Glycerol is likely to be depressed with processing of such large quantities of oil and consequent production of Glycerol raising the cost of Bio-diesel. However, new applications are likely to be found creating additional demand and stabilizing its price. With volatility in the price of crude, the use of Bio-diesel is economically feasible and a strategic option.
Economics of biodiesel in US: US produces biodiesel from edible oil (mainly soya oil), the 100% biodiesel costs around $ 1.25 to $2.25 per gallon depending upon purchase volume and the delivery costs and competes with low sulfur diesel oil. However, it is costlier to normal diesel and the B20 blend costs 13 to 22 cents more per gallon than normal diesel. It takes about 7.3 pounds of soybean oil which costs about 20 cents/pound, to produce a gallon of biodiesel. Feedstock costs are therefore at least $ 1.5 per gallon of soyadiesel. Under the mustard seed program, oil can be produced today for approximately 10 cents/pound and the total cost of producing mustard biodiesel is around $ 1 per gallon. The mustard oils, a low value product contains as much as 90% mono-saturated fatty acids which makes it perfect for biodiesel, balancing cold flow issues with NOx emission issues. US is planning to add 5-10 billion gallons of biodiesel through mustard seeds having mustard meal a high value pesticide that helps keep the price of mustard oil low. In India, it is estimated that cost of Biodiesel produced by trans-esterification of oil obtained from Jatropha Curcas oil-seeds shall be approximately same as that of petroleum diesel. The bye products of Biodiesel from Jatropha seed are the seed oil cake and glycerol, which have good commercial value. The seed oil cake is very good compost being rich in plant nutrients. It can also yield biogas, which can be used for cooking and the residue will be used as compost. Hence oil cake will fetch good price. Glycerol is produced as a bye product in the trans-esterification of oil. These bye-products shall reduce the cost of Biodiesel to make it at par with petroleum diesel. The cost components of Biodiesel are the price of seed, seed collection and oil extraction, oil trans-esterification, transport of seed and oil. As mentioned earlier, cost recovery will be through sale of oil-cake and of glycerol. Taking these elements into account, the price of Biodiesel has been worked out assuming raw material cost of Rs. 3 per kg and varying prices of by-products. The cost of Biodiesel varies between Rs. 9.37 per liter to Rs. 16.02 per liter, depending upon the price assumed for the oil-cake and glycerol. The use of Biodiesel is thus economically feasible.

4 Production of Biodiesel: Many developed countries have active biodiesel program. Currently biodiesel is produced mainly from field crop oils like rapeseed, sunflower etc., in Europe and soybean in US. Malaysia utilizes palm oil for biodiesel production while in Nicaragua it is jatropha oil. The production of vegetable oils globally and in India are given in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2 : Global production of the major vegetable oils (2001)

Source: Oilworld Weekly, (2002)

Table 3 : Vegetable oil production in India (2001)

Source: Solvent Extractors’ Association of India

4.1 Derivatives of triglycerides (vegetable oils) as diesel fuels: The alternative diesel fuels must be technically and environmentally acceptable, and economically competitive. From the viewpoint of these requirements, triglycerides (vegetable oils/animal fats) and their derivatives may be considered as viable alternatives for diesel fuels. The problems with substituting triglycerides for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated character. The problems have been mitigated by developing vegetable oil derivatives that approximate the properties and performance and make them compatible with the hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels through:
§ pyrolysis
§ micro emulsification
§ dilution
§ trans-esterification
4.1.1 Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis refers to a chemical change caused by the application of thermal energy in the absence of air or nitrogen. The liquid fractions of the thermally decomposed vegetable oil are likely to approach diesel fuels. The pyrolyzate had lower viscosity, flash point, and pour point than diesel fuel and equivalent calorific values. The cetane number of the pyrolyzate was lower. The pyrolyzed vegetable oils contain acceptable amounts of sulphur, water and sediment and give acceptable copper corrosion values but unacceptable ash, carbon residue and pour point.
4.1.2 Micro-emulsification: The formation of micro emulsions (co-solvency) is one of the potential solutions for solving the problem of vegetable oil viscosity. Micro-emulsions are defined as transparent, thermodynamically stable colloidal dispersions. The droplet diameters in micro-emulsions range from 100 to 1000 Å. A micro-emulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant (co-solvent), or of vegetable oils, an alcohol and a surfactant and a cetane improver, with or without diesel fuels. Water (from aqueous ethanol) may also be present in order to use lower-proof ethanol, thus increasing water tolerance of the micro-emulsions.
4.1.3 Dilution: Dilution of vegetable oils can be accomplished with such materials as diesel fuels, solvent or ethanol.
4.1.4 Trans-esterification: Trans-esterification also called alcoholysis, is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis. This process has been widely used to reduce the viscosity of triglycerides. The trans-esterification reaction is represented by the general equation. RCOOR’ + R" = RCOOR" + R’OH. If methanol is used in the above reaction, it is termed methanolysis. The reaction of triglyceride with methanol is represented by the general equation. Triglycerides are readily trans-esterified in the presence of alkaline catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of approximately 60 to 70°C with an excess of methanol. The mixture at the end of reaction is allowed to settle. The lower glycerol layer is drawn off while the upper methyl ester layer is washed to remove entrained glycerol and is then processed further. The excess methanol is recovered by distillation and sent to a rectifying column for purification and recycled. The trans-esterification works well when the starting oil is of high quality. However, quite often low quality oils are used as raw materials for biodiesel preparation. In cases where the free fatty acid content of the oil is above 1%, difficulties arise due to the formation of soap which promote emulsification during the water washing stage and at an FFA content above 2% the process becomes unworkable.
4.2 Process variables in trans-esterification: The most important variables that influence trans-esterification reaction time and conversion are:
§ oil temperature
§ reaction temperature;
§ ratio of alcohol to oil;
§ type of catalyst and concentration;
§ intensity of mixing ;
§ purity of reactants.
4.2.1 Oil Temperature: The temperature to which oil is heated before mixing with catalyst and methanol, affects the reaction. It was observed that increase in oil temperature marginally increases the percentage oil to biodiesel conversion as well as the biodiesel recovery. However, the tests were conducted up-to only 60°C as higher temperatures may result in methanol loss in the batch process.
4.2.2 Reaction temperature: The rate of reaction is strongly influenced by the reaction temperature. Generally, the reaction is conducted close to the boiling point of methanol (60 to 70°C) at atmospheric pressure. The maximum yield of esters occurs at temperatures ranging from 60 to 80°C at a molar ratio (alcohol to oil) of 6:1. Further increase in temperature is reported to have a negative effect on the conversion. Studies have indicated that given enough time, trans-esterification can proceed satisfactorily at ambient temperatures in the case of the alkaline catalyst. It was observed that biodiesel recovery was affected at very low temperatures (just like low ambient temperatures in cold weather) but conversion was almost unaffected.
4.2.3 Ratio of alcohol to oil: Another important variable affecting the yield of ester is the molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil. A molar ratio of 6:1 is normally used in industrial processes to obtain methyl ester yields higher than 98% by weight. Higher molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil interferes in the separation of glycerol. It was observed that lower molar ratios required more reaction time. With higher molar ratios, conversion increased but recovery decreased due to poor separation of glycerol. It was found that optimum molar ratios depend upon type & quality of oil.
4.2.4 Catalyst type and concentration: Alkali metal alkoxides are the most effective trans-esterification catalyst compared to the acidic catalyst. Sodium alkoxides are among the most efficient catalysts used for this purpose, although potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide can also be used. Trans methylations occur many folds faster in the presence of an alkaline catalyst than those catalyzed by the same amount of acidic catalyst. Most commercial trans-esterification is conducted with alkaline catalysts. The alkaline catalyst concentration in the range of 0.5 to 1% by weight, yields 94 to 99% conversion of vegetable oil into esters. Further, increase in catalyst concentration does not increase the conversion and it adds to extra costs because it is necessary to remove it from the reaction medium at the end. It was observed that higher amounts of sodium hydroxide catalyst were required for higher FFA oil. Otherwise higher amount of sodium hydroxide resulted in reduced recovery.
4.2.5 Mixing intensity: The mixing effect is most significant during the slow rate region of the trans-esterification reaction. As the single phase is established, mixing becomes insignificant. The understanding of the mixing effects on the kinetics of the trans-esterification process is a valuable tool in the process scale-up and design. It was observed that after adding methanol & catalyst to the oil, 5-10 minutes stirring helps in higher rate of conversion and recovery.
4.2.6 Purity of reactants: Impurities present in the oil also affect conversion levels. Under the same conditions, 67 to 84% conversion into esters can be obtained, using crude vegetable oils, compared with 94 to 97% when using refined oils. The free fatty acids in the original oils interfere with the catalyst. However, under conditions of high temperature and pressure this problem can be overcome. It was observed that crude oils were equally good compared to refined oils for production of biodiesel. However, the oils should be properly filtered. Oil quality is very important in this regard. The oil settled at the bottom during storage may give lesser biodiesel recovery because of accumulation of impurities like wax etc.
4.3 Raw material and its quality for the production of biodiesel
4.3.1 Vegetable Oil: Any sediment would collect at the bottom of the reaction vessel during glycerol settling and at the liquid interface during washing. This would interfere with the separation of the phases and may tend to promote emulsion formation. The oil must be moisture-free because every molecule of water destroys a molecule of the catalyst thus decreasing its concentration. The free fatty acid content should be less than 1%. It was observed that lesser the FFA in oil better is the biodiesel recovery. Higher FFA oil can also be used but the biodiesel recovery will depend upon type of oil and amount of sodium hydroxide used.
4.3.2 Alcohol: Methanol or ethanol, as near to absolute as possible, can be used. As with the oil, the water affects the extent of conversion enough to prevent the separation of glycerol from the reaction mixture.
4.3.3 Catalyst: Sodium or potassium hydroxide, preferably the latter. The corresponding alkoxides also can be used, but it is prohibitively expensive. Best results are obtained, if the catalyst is ³ 85% potassium hydroxide. Best grades of potassium hydroxide have 14-15% water, which can not be removed. It should be low in carbonate, because the carbonate is not an efficient catalyst and may cause cloudiness in the final ester. Sodium hydroxide pellets have given very good results. Because quantity of catalyst used is quite less, good quality catalyst (in-spite of high cost) can be used.
4.3.4 Animal fats: The most prominent animal fat to be studied for potential biodiesel use is tallow. Tallow contains a high amount of saturated fatty acids, and it has therefore a melting point above ambient temperature.
4.3.5 Waste vegetable oils: Every year many millions of tons of waste cooking oils are collected and used in a variety of ways throughout the world. This is a virtually inexhaustible source of energy, which might also prove an additional line of production for "green" companies. These oils contain some degradation products of vegetable oils and foreign material. However, analyses of used vegetable oils indicate that the differences between used and unused fats are not very great and in most cases simple heating and removal by filtration of solid particles suffices for subsequent trans-esterification. The cetane number of a used frying oil methyl ester was given as 49, thus comparing well with other materials,
4.3.6 Esters of vegetable oil: they make good biomass fuels as diesel substitutes, provided the following factors receive special attention:
The yield of transesterified product should be >90%.
The fuel should be as neutral as possible (pH 6.5-8.0)
The fuel should be centrifuged at a temperature below the expected ambient operating temperature. Winterization has been suggested as the ideal solution.
The neutralizing agent should form fuel low in soluble salts, free from carbonate groups.
Ash content should be 0.01%. The fuel should be free from alcohol.
4.4 Storability of biodiesel: It was observed that when the biodiesels of different oils were stored, their FFA as well as viscosity increased. However, FFA remained below 1% even after one and a half years of storage. Minimum increase was observed in Jatropha curcas oil biodiesel, followed by rice bran, sun flower and linseed oil biodiesel. During storage, the biodiesels also gained some weight. It may be mainly due to reaction with oxygen in the air.
4.5 Plants in operation / under construction: Different technologies are currently available and used in the industrial production of biodiesel, which is sold under different trademarks. For example, there are the Italian process of Novamont, and the French IFP as given in Table 4. A number of units are manufacturing biodiesel worldwide. These units are using sunflower oil, soyabean oil, rapeseed oil, used-frying oil, jatropha oil, etc. as a source of triglycerides as given in Table 5 & Table 6
A total of 85 plants were identified including a few pilot plants, over 30 small capacity plants (500-3000 tons) mostly with farmers’ co-operative as owner and several big plants in the capacity range of 10,000 to 120,000 tons. Of these, 44 plants were in Western Europe with Italy as the leading country with 11 plants, 29 plants in Eastern Europe with Czech being the leading country with 16 plants, 8 plants in North America and 4 plants in the rest of the world. Overall capacity grew from 111,000 tons per year in 1991 to 1,286,000 tons per year in 1997. USA is the fastest growing newcomer and a number of companies are emerging there. Additional capacities are expected in Japan and the palm oil producing countries like, Indonesia and Malaysia. Actual production grew from 10,000 tons in 1991 to 661,000 tons in 1997. France is the leading producer with 227,000 tons (in 1996). Table 5 gives country wise number of plants, production capacity and feedstock oil used.

Table 4: Available biodiesel production technologies

( Source: Tadashi Murayama)

Table 5: Country wise capacity of the biodiesel plants

(Source: Anjana Srivastava and Ramprasad)

4.6 Work-done in India
In India, attempts are being made for using non-edible and under-exploited oils for production of esters. The non-traditional seed oils available in the country, which can be exploited for this purpose, are Madhuca indica, Shorea robusta, Pongamia glabra, Mesua ferra (Linn), Mallotus philippines, Garcinia indica, Jatropha curcas and Salvadora.
4.6.1 Harbinsons Biotech Pvt. Ltd., has set up a batch process pilot plant of 1 ton per day capacity at Gurgaon (on outskirts of New Delhi), based on Jatropha curcas.
4.6.2 Punjab Agricultural University is actively involved in R&D work on plant oils and their esters (biodiesel) as alternate fuel for diesel engines since early eighties. Firstly a number of plant oils were used in blend with HSD (high speed diesel) fuel and kerosene oil in the existing diesel engine. Then a simple biodiesel production process was standardized in the laboratory. Based on that a 12 liter batch reactor was developed and used for bulk production of biodiesel which was later scaled up to 60 liters. Biodiesel has been prepared from a number of plant oils (edible as well as non-edible) and used successfully in existing diesel engines.
4.6.3 Indian Institute of Petroleum (IIP) is actively pursuing the utilization of non-edible oils for the production of biodiesel, additives for lubricating oils, saturated and unsaturated alcohol and fatty acids and many other value added products. The results obtained so far are encouraging and need further investigations for commercial exploitation of these products. Some of the products used as lube additives are being produced commercially from non-edible oils based on IIP's technologies. IIP is pursuing program sponsored by DBT on "Liquid fuels form Renewable Resources". The project has two parts:
Part – A deals with the indigenous technology development for biodiesel production using Jatropha Curcas, Karanj Oil, Mahua Oil and Salvadora Oil, as a networking project along with CSMCRI, Bhavnagar and NBRI Lucknow.
Part – B deals with the recovery of Hydrocarbons from biomass and their conversion to liquid fuel with Rajasthan University Jaipur as a networking partner. Rajasthan University will be supplying the biomass to IIP for its extraction and conversion to liquid
fuels. Under this program bulk sample of biodiesel will be prepared using the 30 liter capacity batch pilot plant available at IIP.
4.6.4 Indian Institute of Chemical Technology extracted oil from Jatropha curcas. The oil extraction was based on cooking of jatropha seeds with water followed by drying and expelling of oil. A catalyst-free process (Indian patent filed, US Patent being filed) that is insensitive to moisture or high FFA content has been developed at IICT, and an oil of any FFA content can be converted to the alkyl ester. Active work is also going on at IICT for the preparation of fatty acid esters from low and high FFA vegetable oils using enzymes and solid catalysts.
4.6.5 Besides, preliminary studies on the utilization of non-edible oils such as Neem, Mahua, Linseed etc. as fuel, are being carried out at IIT, Delhi and IIT, Madras. IOC R&D is also doing some work on the trans-esterification of vegetable oils. IOC (R&D) has already set up a biodiesel production facility of 60 kg/day at Faridabad. Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd has a pilot plant utilizing Karanj for biodiesel production in Mumbai. This plant has carried out successful trails on tractors using this fuel. Parameters such as power, torque, fuel consumption, emissions, etc. have been found quite satisfactory on tractors operating on this biodiesel. Field trials for about 30,000 kms have also been carried out on the tractors. In India most of the trials were done using biodiesel from feedstock like Karanj and Jatropha. Biodiesel from different feed stocks even after meeting ASTM standards may vary in composition, lubricity, oxidation stability, etc. It is desirable to carry out tests on biodiesel from all possible feed stocks available in India and generate comparative data on fuel composition

5 Blending of Esters & Diesel
Blending conventional Diesel Fuel (DF) with esters (usually methyl esters) of vegetable oils is presently the most common form of biodiesel. The most common ratio is 80% conventional diesel fuel and 20% vegetable oil ester, also termed "B20," indicating the 20% level of biodiesel. There have been numerous reports that significant emission reductions are achieved with these blends.
No engine problems were reported in larger-scale tests with, for example, urban bus fleets running on B20. Fuel economy was comparable to DF2, with the consumption of biodiesel blend being only 2-5% higher than that of conventional DF. Another advantage of biodiesel blends is the simplicity of fuel preparation, which only requires mixing of the components. Ester blends have been reported to be stable, for example, a blend of 20% peanut oil with 80% DF did not separate at room temperature over a period of 3 months. A 50:50 blends of peanut oil with DF was also found quite stable. Several studies have shown that diesel/biodiesel blends reduce smoke opacity, particulate, un-burnt hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide emissions, but nitrous monoxide emissions are slightly increased. One limitation to the use of biodiesel is its tendency to crystallize at low temperatures below 0°C. Methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oils will crystallize and separate from diesel at temperatures often experienced in winter time operation. Such crystals can plug fuel lines and filters, causing problems in fuel pumping and engine operation. One solution to this problem may be the use of branched-chain esters, such as isopropyl esters. The isopropyl esters of soya bean oil crystallize 7 to 11°C lower than the corresponding methyl esters. Another method to improve the cold flow properties of vegetable oil esters is to remove high- melting saturated esters by inducing crystallization with cooling, a process known as winterization.

6 Storage of Biodiesel: Pure plant oils are completely harmless to the environment, especially the groundwater. However, esterification of vegetable oil increases its water hazard. As per German EPA classifies waste vegetable oil as a toxic waste. As a general rule blends of biodiesel and petroleum diesel should be treated like petroleum diesel. It is recommended to store biodiesel in clean, dry and approved tanks. Though the flash point of biodiesel is high, still storage precautions somewhat like that in storing the diesel fuel need to be taken Biodiesel can be stored for long periods in closed containers with little headroom but the container must be protected from direct sunlight, low temperature and weather. Underground storage is preferred in cold climates but is stored in open proper insulation, heating and other equipment should be installed. B20 fuel can be stored in tanks, above ground depending on the pour point and cloud points of the blend. Low temperature can cause biodiesel to gel. Additives can be used for low temperature storage and pumping. The biodiesel / its blends should be stored at temperatures at least 15oC higher than the pour point of the fuel. While splash blending the biodiesel, care should be taken to avoid very low fuel temperatures as the saturated compounds can crystallize and separate out to cause plugging of fuel lines and filters. Condensation of water in the tank should be avoided as hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria and mold can grow and these use biodiesel as food.
Biodiesel and its blends are susceptible to growing microbes when water is present in fuel. Biocides, chemicals that kill bacteria and molds growing in fuel tank, can be added in small concentration. Biocides do not remove sediments. Moreover, storage of biodiesel in old tanks can release accumulated deposits and slime and can cause very severe filter and pump blockage problem. For long term storage stability of Biodiesel and blends adequate data are not available. Based on experience so far it is recommended that biodiesel can be store up to a maximum period of 6 months. Some anti-oxidant additives are also used for longer periods of storage. Similar periods are applicable for storage of biodiesel and its blends in vehicle fuel tank. Due to being a mild solvent, biodiesel has a tendency to dissolve the sediments normally encountered in old tanks used for diesel fuel and these cause filter blockage, injector failures in addition to clogging of fuel lines. Brass, copper, zinc etc oxidizes diesel and biodiesel fuels and create sediments. The fuel and fitting will start changing color as the sediments are formed. Storage tank made of aluminum, steel etc should be used.

7 Handling of Biodiesel: As a general rule blends of biodiesel and petroleum diesel should be treated like petroleum diesel. Biodiesel, vegetable methyl esters, contain no volatile organic compounds that can give rise to poisonous or noxious fumes. There is no aromatic hydrocarbon (benzene, toluene, xylene) or chlorinated hydrocarbons. There is no lead or sulfur to react and release any harmful or corrosive gases. However, in case of biodiesel blends significant fumes released by benzene and other aromatics present in the base diesel fuel can continue. On contact with eye, biodiesel may cause irritation to eye. Safety glasses or face shields should be used to avoid mist or splash on face and eyes. Fire fighting measures to be followed as per its fire hazard classification. Hot fuel may cause burn. Biodiesel should be handled with gloves as it may cause soft skin. Mild irritation on skin can occur.
German Regulations on water hazard classification classify products either as NWG (non hazardous to water ) or WGK 1, WGK 2 and WGK 3 with increasing water hazard. Both biodiesel and methanol are classifies as WGK 1. The glycerin also falls under same classification. There is no risk of explosions from vapors of biodiesel as the flash point is high and the vapor pressure is less than 1 mm Hg. Large biodiesel spills can be harmful. Biodiesel, while not completely harmless to the larvae of crustacea and fish, is less harmful than petroleum diesel fuel.
Biodiesel methyl esters have very low solubility in water (saturation concentration of 7 ppm in sea water and 14 ppm in fresh water at 17oC) compared to petroleum diesel that contain benzene, toluene, xylene and other more water soluble, highly toxic compounds. However, when the biodiesel is vigorously blended into water, the methyl esters form a temporary emulsion of tiny droplets that appear to be harmful to the swimming larvae. The half- life for biodegradation of vegetable methyl ester is about 4 days at 17oC, about twice fast as petroleum diesel. In the laboratory tests, rapeseed methyl eater degraded by 95% while the diesel fuel degraded only 40% at the end of 23 days.
Any accidental discharge/ spill of small amounts of biodiesel should have little impact on the environment compared to petroleum diesel, which contain more toxic and more water-soluble aromatics. Nonetheless, the methyl esters could still cause harm. EPA still considers spills of vegetable oils and animal fats as harmful to the environment. Spilling biodiesel in water is as illegal as spilling petroleum. Biodiesel need to be handled like any other petroleum fuels and laws should be reviewed to ensure that biodiesel is covered in the same class, if not included already. When biocides are used in the fuel tank to kill bacteria, suitable handling precautions like use of gloves and eye protection is must. One must check if the laws on disposal of petroleum products are applicable to biodiesel also. Similarly check if Laws for spill prevention and containment action for those who produce or store biodiesel exists. Discharge of animal fats and vegetable oil are order of magnitude less toxic than petroleum discharge, do not create carcinogenic compounds and, are really biodegradable by bacteria thus minimizing physical impact on environment.
Nevertheless, extreme discharges of animal fats, vegetable oils and biodiesel can cause negative impact on aquatic life. Biodiesel spills compare more favorably to petroleum oil spills. Moreover, likelihood of a vegetable oil or biodiesel oil spill being comparable in magnitude to a petroleum spill is also very small due to differences in volumes in the two industries. Petroleum tankers exceed 250,000-ton capacity whereas vegetable oils are carried in parcel tankers with 3500-ton capacity.
There is a need to differentiate between the vegetable oils and petroleum oil through the creation of separate classes for animal fats and vegetable oils from petroleum oils, and apply separate standards based on the differences in physical characteristics between the classes. Biodiesel is currently controlled in the same manner as animal fats, vegetable oils and petroleum oils are controlled under oil spill laws and regulations, biodiesel facilities and tanker vessels transporting biodiesel remain controlled in the same manner as if they were petroleum oil facilities or tanker vessels transporting petroleum oil.

8 Analysis of technologies with reference to Indian resources & requirements
8.1 India has rich and abundant forest resources with a wide range of plants and oilseeds. The production of these oilseeds can be stepped up many folds if the government takes the decision to use them for producing diesel fuels. Economical feasibility of biodiesel depends on the price of the crude petroleum and the cost of transporting diesel to long distances to remote markets in India. Further, the strict regulations on the aromatics and sulphur contents in diesel fuels will result in higher cost of production of conventional diesel fuels.
8.2 The production of ethyl esters from edible oils is currently much more expensive than hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels due to the relatively high costs of vegetable oils. The cost of biodiesel can be reduced if we consider non-edible oils, and used frying oils instead of edible oils. Non-edible oils such as neem, mahua, karanja, babassu, jatropha, etc. are easily available in many parts of the world including India, and are very cheap compared to edible oils. The potential availability of some non-edible oils in India is given in Table 7.

Table 7 Non-edible oil sources of India

(Source: Anjana Srivastava and Ramprasad)

8.3 The processing of oilseeds for the production of edible vegetable oils generates byproduct streams, containing triglycerides, phospholipids and free fatty acids. In many cases these streams are of considerably lower value than the finished oil. Successful development of a scheme for ester synthesis from low-value lipids could address the economic barriers to a wider adoption of biodiesel.
8.4 Fatty acid methyl ester could be produced from tall oil, a by-product in the manufacture of pulp by the Kraft process. Tall oil consists of free C18 unsaturated fatty acids, resin acids and relatively small amounts of unsaponifiables. The fatty acid fraction of tall oil contains mainly oleic acid, linoleic acid and its isomers.
8.5 With the mushrooming of fast food centers and restaurants in India, it is expected that considerable amounts of used-frying oils will be discarded into the drains. These can be used for making biodiesel, thus helping to reduce the cost of water treatment in the sewerage system and assisting in the recycling of resources.
8.6 Acid oil, which is cheaper than both raw and refined oils, is a major by-product of the alkali refining industries and is a potential raw material for making biodiesel.
8.7 It is also possible to use vegetable oils directly blended with diesel oil. With about 25% diesel oil mixed with vegetable oil, it is possible to achieve improved thermal efficiency and lower smoke emissions
8.8 Heating the fuel to lower the viscosity and then using vegetable oils directly as fuels is also an option.
8.9 Thermal and catalytic decomposition of vegetable oils to produce gasoline and diesel fuel has been studied by a number of scientists using various methods with the objective of finding a gasoline replacement, but the fuel obtained possessed an inferior octane number. At the present, a hydrocarbon fuel with a similar volatility and molecular weight as diesel fuel can be produced with an approximate volume yield of 50% from the decomposition of vegetable oils. The method that appears most promising is pre-hydrogenation followed by thermal or catalytic decomposition of vegetable oils.
8.10 Biodiesel can be used as a pure fuel or blend with petroleum diesel depending on the economics and emissions.
8.11 The Indian Scenario is different from Europe and USA where refined vegetable oils, waste frying oils and tallow are used to produce biodiesel. In India, non-edible oils are likely the preferred feed stock. The trans-esterification of non-edible oils has been studied extensively with a view to produce biodiesel. Data on oil characteristics, their behavior in trans-esterification and quality of biodiesel produced from each oil is available for application of this process such as: catalysts (basic, acidic, homogeneous / heterogeneous); continuous / batch operation; scale of operation; by products valuation and utilization.

9 Engine Development & Modifications: Studies conducted with biodiesel on engines have shown substantial reduction in Particulate matter (25–50%). However, a marginal increase in NOx (1-6%) is also reported. It may be noted that the marginal increase in NOx can be taken care of either by optimization of engine parts or by using De-NOx catalyst. HC and CO emissions were also reported to be lower. Non-regulated emissions like PAH etc were also found to be lower.
Although, biodiesel is reported to have superior lubricity, its effect on lubricity of FIP needs to be quantified for typical Indian feed stocks. Flash point of biodiesel is high (> 100oC). Its blending with diesel fuel can be utilized to increase the flash point of diesel particularly in India where flash point is 35oC, well below the world average of 55oC. This is important from the safety point of view. Most of the studies reported had used methyl ester. However, ethyl ester can also be expected to give similar results.
The viscosity of biodiesel is higher (1.9 to 6.0 cSt) and reported to result into gum formation on injector, cylinder liner etc. This needs to be studied on various engine designs. 5-10% biodiesel can be used with HSD without any engine modifications. The Emission norms of diesel cars and heavy-duty vehicles are given in Table-8 and Table-9 respectively. Indian and European diesel fuel specifications are tabulated in Table-10. It may be noted that increasing demand on improving fuel quality with time due to stringent emission norms requires heavy cost in terms of better vehicle technology and refineries up- gradation. Therefore, use of clean fuels like biodiesel becomes more relevant in the present context.
Biodiesel can be derived from many vegetable oils, restaurant greases and fats such as corn, cashew, oat, palm, lupine, rubber seed, coffee, linseed, hazelnut, euphobia, pumpkin seed, sesame, kenaf, calendula, cotton, hemp, soybean, rapeseed, olive tree, castor bean, jojoba, pecan, oil palm, safflower, rice, sunflower, peanut, tung oil tree, jatropha, macadamia nut, brazil nut, avocado, coconut, macuba palm karanja etc. Vegetable oils can be used as a fuel in diesel engines. The use of unrefined vegetable oil leads to poor fuel atomization due to high viscosity resulting in poor combustion and also more gum formation in fuel injector, liner etc. The results of emissions of using unrefined vegetable oils were unfavorable and were also accompanied by deposit formation. Therefore, it is necessary to esterify the vegetable oil for use in engines. Most of the studies presented below are focussed on use of methyl ester and its blends in engines. Methyl esters have high cetane number leading to low engine operating noise and good starting characteristics. Some of the properties of Methyl esters are shown in Table 11.
Christopher A. Sharp conducted detailed experiments with biodiesel. He conducted the experiments with three engines (1997 Cummins N14, 1997 DDC Series 50, 1995 Cummins B5.9) with neat biodiesel (B100) and biodieseldiesel blend (B20). The results of the engine (DDC Series 50) are shown in Table 12. He investigated the effects of biodiesel on engine performance and exhaust emissions with and without catalyst. The results show a significant reduction in exhaust emissions. CO and HC emissions were significantly lower than diesel operation. However, NOx emissions increased marginally. The particulate emissions were generally lower (about 25 to 50%) due to higher oxygen content in biodiesel. The non- regulated emissions like PAH and nPAH also decreased significantly.
Apart from benefit in terms of emissions, the use of biodiesel is also reported to give excess carbon deposit on injector, liner etc and the results in various studies had also confirmed this problem. However, these problems can be addressed by use of a suitable additives package. Engine oil dilution is a potential problem with biodiesel since it is more prone to oxidation and polymerization than diesel fuel. The presence of biodiesel in engine could cause thick sludge to occur with the consequence that the oil becomes too thick to pump. Engine oil formulations need to be studied to minimize the effect of dilution with biodiesel. The manufacture of Caterpillar engine has recommended various suggestions to the users on the use of biodiesel in their engines. The salient features of recommendations are
Biodiesel provides approximately 5-7% less energy than distillate fuels. One should not change the engine rating to compensate for the power loss in order to avoid engine problems.
At low ambient temperatures, the fuel system may require heated fuel lines, filters and tanks. Biodiesel has poor oxidation stability, which may accelerate fuel oxidation in the fuel system. Oxidation stability additive has to be used to avoid long term storage problem.
They have set the Caterpiller biodiesel specification standards. In that, they mentioned the fuel quality on use in Caterpiller engine should be sulfur content maximum of 0.01% by weight, cetane number minimum of 45, flash point minimum of 100oC etc.
Use of bio-fuels and their effect on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to atmosphere is well updated in a Concave report. They studied the effects with ethanol and Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME). They calculated net greenhouse gas in view of emissions from bio-fuels production process and burning, and these were compared with fossil fuel at same energy content. They reported that the CO2 emitted during combustion of the bio-fuel does not enter into the balance, because it was absorbed from the atmosphere by the growing crop. This point is well debated and concluded in the concave report. The gain, in terms of GHG for the use of biodiesel, is not well established as lot of uncertainties need to be cleared in estimating GHG.
It must be noted that the light duty diesel engines are sufficiently different from heavy duty diesel engines in may aspects and one should not expect that the emission behavior of the two types of engines would be same. This fact should be kept in mind while transferring conclusions of studies done on one type of engine to other type of engines.

Table-8 : Indian & European Vehicle Emission Norms

Table-9 : Indian & European Vehicle Emission Norms Diesel Heavy Duty vehicles

* Implemented only in metros.
** To be implemented in metro from 2005

Table-10 : Comparison of Indian & European Diesel specifications

TABLE - 11 : Properties of different Methyl esters compared to diesel fuel

TABLE – 12 : Tests result for DDC series 50 engine at transient conditions are

10 Environmental and Health Effects of Biodiesel
The use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. However, Emissions of nitrogen dioxides are either slightly reduced or slightly increased depending on the duty cycle and testing methods. The use of biodiesel decreases the solid carbon fraction of particulate matter (since the oxygen in biodiesel enables more complete combustion to CO2), eliminates the sulphur fraction (as there is no sulphur in the fuel), while the soluble or hydrogen fraction stays the same or is increased. Therefore, biodiesel works well with new technologies such as oxidation catalysts.
As per U.S.EPA biodiesel has been comprehensively evaluated in terms of emissions and potential health effects under the Clean Air Act Section 211(b). These programs include stringent emissions testing protocols required by EPA for certification of fuels in the U.S. The data gathered through these tests include thorough inventory of the environmental and human health effects attributes that current technology will allow. The results of the emissions tests for pure biodiesel (B100) and mixed biodiesel (B20-20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel) compared to conventional diesel are given in Table-13 & 14

Table 13: Biodiesel Emissions Compared to Conventional Diesel

*Estimated from B100 results.
**Average reduction across all compounds measured.
***2-nitroflourine results were within test method variability.

Table 14: Emission results of Biodiesel and blends tests on IDI diesel engine

Test Cycle : EEC+EUDC 90 kmph Cold Start All in b/km

(Source: Mahindra & Mahindra)

The life-cycle production and use of biodiesel produces approximately 80% less carbon dioxide and almost 100% less sulphur dioxide compared to conventional diesel.
Biodiesel emissions are nontoxic. From Table 15, it is clear that biodiesel gives a distinct emission benefit almost for all regulated and non-regulated pollutants when compared to conventional diesel fuel but emissions of NOx appear to increase from biodiesel. NOx increases with the increase in concentration of biodiesel in the mixture of biodiesel and petroleum diesel. This increase in NOx emissions may be neutralized by the efficient use of NOx control technologies, which fits better with almost nil sulphur biodiesel then conventional diesel containing sulphur. It may also be noted that emission of NOx also varies with the different family of feed stocks for biodiesel. Moreover, the problem of increased NOx emission can be effectively tackled by retarding the fuel injection timing.
10.1 Comparison of particulate composition Diesel Vs. Biodiesel (Rapeseed Methyl Esters, RSME): When the engine is operated on RSME, soot emissions (insoluble) are dramatically reduced, but the proportion of emissions composed of fuel derived hydrocarbons (fuel soluble), condensed on the soot, is much higher. This implies that the RSME may not burn to completion as readily as diesel fuel. It should, however, be noted that gaseous HC emissions were reduced with RSME in the above tests. Since concern over particulate arises partly from the potential harmful effects of the soluble fraction, it might be suspected that emissions from RSME would be more harmful however data shows no tendency for the mutagenicity of exhaust gas to increase for a vehicle running on 20% RSME and 80% diesel blends.

Table 15

10.2 Toxicity & Safety issues: Biodiesel is non-toxic. The acute oral LD50 (lethal dose) is greater than 17.4-g/Kg-body weight. It causes very mild human skin irritation, which is less than the irritation produced by 4% soap and water solution. It is bio-degradable. There is no tendency for the mutagenicity of exhaust gas to increase for a vehicle running on biodiesel (20% RSME, 80% diesel). Biodiesel is considered as fairly safer fuel. Biodiesel has a flash point of about 300oF well above conventional diesel fuel. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), USA lists its aquatic toxicity as "insignificant" in its Registry of the Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. EPA rates biodiesel to have the same safety concerns to that associated with conventional fuels. This product (biodiesel) is not "hazardous" under the criteria of the Federal OSHA Hazard Communication Standard 29 CFR 1910.1200. As per the California Proposition 65- this product contains no chemicals known to the state of California to cause cancer. This fuel is registered under Fuel and Fuel additives at 40 CFR79 of US-EPA.

11 Research & Development: In India research on biodiesel is in infant stage, there is a dire need to adopt vigorous programs on the technological development for its production, utilization of by products and evaluation in engine with respect to shortcomings, emissions, additive response etc. For efficient production of biodiesel, concerted R&D effort is needed to produce high quality feedstock material and to develop an improved, cost effective and efficient biodiesel production system. Biodiesel from different feed stocks may vary in composition, lubricity, oxidation stability, etc. It is desirable to carry out tests on biodiesel from all possible feed stocks available in India and generate comparative data on fuel composition emissions and materials compatibility, etc. Toxicological study is a pre-requisite for introduction of any fuel. It is recommended that such studies in India should be initiated through concerned R&D centers. Procedure for detecting percentage of biodiesel in the blended fuel and to check adulteration of the fuel should also be developed. Emission norms for biodiesel vehicles may be similar to that of the conventional diesel vehicles Research and Development needs in broadly three areas viz. Raw Material, Production Technology and Utilization of biodiesel as fuel have been considered. The major raw materials used for the production of biodiesel are vegetable oil and alcohol. In India vegetable oils are costly and are in short supply therefore, non-edible oils such as Jatropha curcas. Pongaima, Salvodra, Acacia, Madhuca latifolia, Saliciornia etc. are preferred feed stock for biodiesel production. The potential of total non-edible oils in India is around 100,000 tons / annum. There is a need to increase the production of non-edible oil even to achieve a humble target of 5.0% replacement of diesel with biodiesel.
The other R&D issues which need attention are seed resource assessment, collection and their cryo-preservation, increasing availability of seed, seed setting, inter-cropping with TBOS, selection of high yielding crops, developing agro-technologies for different agro climatic regions, oil quality, biodiesel production technology using new catalyst systems like heterogeneous catalysts, lipase catalyst and supported catalysts on smart polymers, utilization of by-products apart from issues related to utilization of biodiesel as fuel including compatibility with additives and elastomers, engine performance, toxicity adulteration etc.
11.1 Raw Material
11.1.1. Production of improved feed stock / raw-material: The major raw materials used for the production of biodiesel are (a) vegetable oil (b) alcohol (methanol, ethanol etc.). Total vegetable oil production in India (2001-02) is 6.67 million metric tons (Source: Solvent Extraction Association of India) while ethanol production is around 1.3 billion liters (Source: CBMD souvenir on Ethanol and Biodiesel, Sept. 2002).
The studies all over the world on vegetable oils as the alternative fuels are mainly concentrated on field crops like rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, Canola oil, used fried oil etc. In India these oils are costly and are in short supply. For India it appears that non-edible oils may be the choice feed stock for biodiesel production. At present the most widely used raw material for biodiesel in India is Jatropha curcas and Pongaima However, other species such as, Salvodra, Acacia, Madhuca latifolia, Saliciornia etc. also offer enormous potential.
The potential of total non-edible oils in India is around 100,000 tons / annum (Source: Report on Role of NGOs, and Inform, vol. 13, 151-157, Feb. 2002). This quantity is not even sufficient for 0.25 % replacement of diesel need of India There is a need to increase the production of non-edible oil even to achieve a moderate target of 5.0% replacement of diesel with biodiesel.
There is need to increase the area under utilization of genetically improved tree species which can produce better quality and quantity of oil. This would require systematic efforts towards tree improvement program, identification of Candidate Plus Tree (CPTs), standardization of nursery raising techniques (i.e. Vegetative/seed/tissue culture) so that high yielding genotypes could be produced for further plantation programs, which in turn could yield better quality and quantity of oil.
NOVOD, NBRI Lucknow, CSMCRI, Bhavnagar leading universities and other R&D institutions working in the similar field can play a leading role in developing high yielding varieties of CPTS specially Jatropha Curcas. The other reachable issues, which need attention, are seed resource assessment, collection and their cryo preservation, increasing availability of seed, seed setting, inter-cropping with TBOS (Tree Borne oil Seeds).
11.1.2 Selection of the crop for production of Biodiesel: This is perhaps the most important and also the most neglected issue. As mentioned earlier for India it appears that non-edible oils is the choice feed stock for Biodiesel production.
There is a need to collect scientific data to get the realistic figures on the yield pattern and on the oil content/ quality. Presently, most of such figures are just based on preliminary studies and we have no pilot projects to support the data. To begin with Jatropha Curcas seems to be the most potential candidate considering its favorable properties. Some reports indicate that Jatropha gives yields varying from 1.5 tons / hectare to as high as 12 tons / hectares. However, the types of genetic species, which give high yield, are not classified. There are enormous possibilities for selecting and breeding crops with higher yields of suitable oil.
Biotechnology tools can be applied for producing high quality elite planting material. Tissue Culture technologies help in mass-producing the elite identified clones. Techniques of genetic engineering also offer a possibility of producing desirable material. Research effort should continue for identifying new and potential sources of raw material. NOVOD can help in this regard.
11.1.3 Developing agro-technologies for different agro-climatic regions: For maximum yield proper agro-technologies are essential, research studies on standardizing nursery practices need to be further strengthened. There is enormous waste and marginal land available and technologies for utilizing this effectively are required to be standardized for different potential crops to be grown in various ecosystems. Proper scientific data is essential for planting density, fertilization practices, planting procedure etc. Research being supported for developing complete agro-technologies for potential crops for different agro-ecosystems, needs to be strengthened. Demonstrations should be laid out pilot scale data collected. Complete technology packages should be prepared for adoption at grass root level. This area requires complete peoples participation. CSMCRI Bhavnagar, NBRI Lucknow NOVOD, leading universities and other R&D institutions working in this area can take up this work.
11.1.4 Oil Quality: The oil quality has a direct relationship with the technology of trans-esterification a basic reaction in biodiesel production. Oils having high free fatty acids (FFA) need a different treatment of the oil from that of low FFA oils. Therefore, chemical analysis of the oil, with respect to unsaponifiable matter, free fatty acids and composition of fatty acids becomes very important. There is a need for total chemical analysis of all potential non edible oils with special reference to Jatropha Curcas Oil for biodiesel production prior to carrying out trans-esterification studies. Various aspects like, characterization of the oil and pretreatment studies also require to be looked into. The oils on storage for longer period get deteriorated so information is needed on their storage stabilities especially with respect to the increased FFA content and sediments. Improved storage practices should be developed. OTRI may be helpful in providing the information.
11.2 Production Technology
12.1 Biodiesel production: Plant based oils can be converted to Biodiesel by processing of the oil so as to convert triglycerides to fatty acid esters. This trans-esterification reaction is simple, however, improved technologies would result in higher yield and better quality. Research efforts for perfecting an efficient chemical / catalyst conversion process are ongoing and need to be pursued further. Methyl as well ethyl esters can be used in the diesel engine. It may be interesting to do studies to assess effect of type of esterification on the final properties of the fuel using the same base feedstock. Indian Oil should be requested to generate some data on this aspect.
Even if India opt for foreign technology for the production of biodiesel from non-edible oils their will be a need of R&D to fine tune the foreign technology to suits the oils produced in India.
11.2.2 Biocatalyst: Conventionally biodiesel is produced through trans-esterification of oils with a short chain alcohol in the presence of a homogenous catalyst. With this catalyst, water treatment or neutralization is required. New tools / techniques can be applied using heterogeneous catalysts, which will eliminate the pollution and handling problems. Heterogeneous slurry catalysts are filterable from the oil. Fixed-bed system avoids the catalysts removal step and also the catalyst could be potentially regenerated in-situ. Research efforts have also been initiated for optimizing lipase catalyzed trans-esterification conditions. This includes study on identifying the appropriate lipase, purification of the enzyme through modern efficient techniques like expanded bed chromatography, affinity precipitation and three phase partitioning. Lipase catalyzed esterification / trans-esterification is reported to be a more efficient process than the chemical / catalytic process. The data/ conditions optimized for lipase production from different microorganisms, culture conditions, fermentation, lipase assay, immobilized enzyme reaction etc. would be useful for efficient conversion.
11.2.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst: An emerging alternative technology is to use smart polymers. These are basically soluble polymers whose solubility can be altered in a reversible fashion by the use of a command. The command can be a change in pH, ionic strength, temperature or even addition of an ion or chemical. Thus enzymes immobilized on such supports can be used in soluble form with plant material, cellulose material and recovered after the reaction by altering the conditions i.e. using a suitable command. The trans-esterification reaction requires low water conditions otherwise product esters will be hydrolyzed back. The protocols for such reactions are available but optimization in terms of best enzyme, best immobilization form, best solvent etc are required with each individual system. A number of lipase are commercially available and can be used after limited purification.
A number of strategies have been worked out for enhancing enzymes activity under anhydrous conditions. These involve pH tuning, salt activation and choosing the right support for immobilization. All these need to be tried for maximizing biodiesel yield. Indian Institute of Petroleum, IOC R&D Faridabad, IICT Hyderabad, Punjab Agriculture University, IIT Delhi and some other research organizations which are already working on this aspect are capable of completing this work in a reasonable time frame.
11.2.4 Utilization of by-products: The cost of biodiesel production can be reduced by proper utilization of by-products such as glycerol and meal cake apart from improving trans-esterification process. Glycerol from biodiesel contain some peculiar impurities and may not be suitable to process according to the usual technologies to produce pharmaceutical or top grade product.
There is a need not only to develop purification technology for glycerol but also for its utilization as a raw material for the production of other chemicals as large quantity (200,000 tons / year) of the glycerol will be available even if 5 % diesel is targeted to be replaced by biodiesel against the present glycerol demand in Indian which is the tune of 40,000 tons / year.
There is a need to find the use of meal cake, which will be available in large quantities to reduce the cost of biodiesel. Meal cake may be used as fertilizer, as cattle feed after detoxification, etc. CSMCRI, NBRI Universities and NOVOD may be approached for R&D requirements.
11.3 Utilization as Fuel
11.3.1 Biodiesel Characterization: In India most of the trials has been carried out using biodiesel from feed stocks like Jatropha Curcas and Karanj oils. Biodiesel from different feed stocks even after meeting ASTM standards may very in composition, lubricity, oxidation stability etc. It is desirable to carry out tests on biodiesel from all possible feed stocks available in India and generate comparative data on fuel composition.
11.3.2 Compatibility with additives: Biodiesel may have different response with present day additives. There is a need to study in detail the response of different available additives, their dosages on the biodiesel e.g.
a) Biodiesel thickens at low temperature so it needs cold flow improver additives with acceptable CFPP
b) Pour point depressants commonly used for diesel may not work for biodiesel.
c) Poor oxidation stability of biodiesel may require increased amount of stabilizer
d) To avoid growth of algae in presence of water, some biocide may be needed.
Some newer additives may have to be developed / required for biodiesel.
11.3.3 Compatibility with elastomers: Though biodiesel (B100) can be used as a replacement of petroleum diesel, further study is needed to study the effect of biodiesel on elastomers, additive response, corrosion etc. Minor modifications in the engine may also be required.
11.3.4 Stability of Bio diesel: Biodiesel ages more quickly than fossil diesel fuel due to the chemical structure of fatty acid esters present in biodiesel. There are three types of stability criteria, which need to be studied: (a) Oxidation stability (b) Thermal Stability and (c) Storage Stability. Poor oxidation and thermal stability can cause fuel thickening, formation of gum and sediments and may also affect engine oil due to dilution. Current knowledge and database is still inadequate. It is desirable to carry out tests on biodiesel from different feed stocks available in India and generate data in relation to fuel composition. Very little data is available on the long-term storage stability of biodiesel. Effect of presence of water, sediments, and additives on storage stability needs to be investigated in detail.
11.3.5 Engine Performance: No or very little data on effect of biodiesel from Jatropha and Karanj Oil on emission and engine performance using various proportion of biodiesel is available. This needs validation on test engine beds. Apart from the study on engine performance on different capacities of engines/ vehicles the following aspects need to be studied further
a. Endurance tests for finding out wear on engine components like cylinder liner, piston rings etc., analysis for carbon deposit on piston, value, injectors etc.
b. Analysis of crankcase lubricating oil for assessing the deterioration or contamination due to blow by leakage.
c. Effect of additives to prevent gum formation need to be evaluated.
Indian Institute of Petroleum & IOC, Faridabad are the best R&D institution having all facilities and expertise to take up R&D activity on all the aspects related to the utilization of biodiesel as alternative fuel and potential blending component for diesel.
11.3.6 Toxicological Studies: Toxicological study is a pre-requisite for introduction of any fuel. It is recommended that such studies in India should be initiated through concerned R&D centers such as ITRC, Lucknow.
11.3.7 Adulteration: (1) Procedure for detecting percentage of biodiesel in the blended fuel and to check adulteration of the fuel should be developed. FTL may be approached to develop the procedure for checking the adulteration. (2) Adulteration of Jatropha Curcas Oil in edible oils will be a very serious problem after the start of this ambitious program of producing biodiesel from Jatropha curcas oil as Jatropha Curcas oil will be available to common people in large quantities at a very low price. Plans should be chalked out to check this adulteration.

12 Properties of Biodiesel: A general understanding of the various properties of biodiesel is essential to study their implications in engine use, storage, handling and safety.
12.1 Density/ Specific Gravity: Biodiesel is slightly heavier than conventional diesel fuel (specific gravity 0.88 compared to 0.84 for diesel fuel). This allows use of splash blending by adding biodiesel on top of diesel fuel for making biodiesel blends. Biodiesel should always be blended at top of diesel fuel. If biodiesel is first put at the bottom and then diesel fuel is added, it will not mix. Density control is specified in European specifications but not in ASTM specification. But for India it is proposed to keep density specifications to check for contamination / adulteration.
12.2 Cetane Number: Cetane number of a diesel engine fuel is indicative of its ignition characteristics. Higher the cetane number better it is in its ignition properties. Cetane number affects a number of engine performance parameters like combustion, stability, drive ability, white smoke, noise and emissions of CO and HC. Biodiesel has higher cetane number than conventional diesel fuel. This results in higher combustion efficiency and smoother combustion. No correlation was found between the specific gravity and the cetane number of various biodiesel. It is important to note that Cetane Index, commonly used to indicate the ignition characteristics of diesel fuels, does not give correct results for biodiesel. Hence Cetane Index is not specified and a cetane number test is necessary. Even for a biodiesel blend, cetane index is not applicable as it does give a correct approximation of cetane number of the blend.
12.3 Viscosity: In addition of lubrication of fuel injection system components, Fuel viscosity controls the characteristics of the injection from the diesel injector (droplet size, spray characteristics etc.). The viscosity of methyl esters can go to very high levels and hence, it is important to control it within an acceptable level to avoid negative impact on fuel injection system performance. Therefore, the viscosity specifications proposed are same as that of the diesel fuel.
12.4 Distillation characteristics: The distillation characteristics of biodiesel are quite different from that of diesel fuel. Biodiesel does not contain any highly volatile components, the fuel evaporates only at higher temperature. This is the reason that sometimes sump lubrication oil dilution observed in many tests. The methyl esters present in biodiesel generally have molecular chains of 16 - 18 carbons which have very close boiling points. In other words, rather than showing a distillation characteristics, biodiesel exhibits a boiling point. Boiling point of biodiesel generally range between 330o to 357oC. The limit of 360oC is specified mainly to ensure that high boiling point components are not present in biodiesel as adulterants / contaminants.
12.5 Flash point: Flash point of a fuel is defined as the temperature at which it will ignite when exposed to a flame or spark. The flash point of biodiesel is higher than the petroleum based diesel fuel. Flash point of biodiesel blends is dependent on the flash point of the base diesel fuel used, and increase with percentage of biodiesel in the blend. Thus in storage, biodiesel and its blends are safer than conventional diesel. The flash point of biodiesel is around 160oC, but it can reduce drastically if the alcohol used in manufacture of biodiesel is not removed properly. Residual alcohol in the biodiesel reduces its flash point drastically and is harmful to fuel pump, seals, elastomers etc. It also reduces the combustion quality.
A minimum flash point for biodiesel is specified more from the point of view of restricting the alcohol content rather than a fire hazard. A minimum flash point of 100ºC is specified to ensure that excess methanol used for the esterification is removed. Another important consideration is that the test method used to find out flash point (ASTM D 93) gives high scatter in results at the flash point nears 100oC. Due to this reason, the ASTM D 6751 standard issued in Feb, 2002 calls for a flash point of min. 130oC though the intent is to get a min. value of 100oC (as specified in 1999 Draft standard PS 121)
12.6 Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP): At low operating temperature fuel may thicken and not flow properly affecting the performance of fuel lines, fuel pumps and injectors. Cold filter plugging point of biodiesel reflects its cold weather performance. It defines the fuels limit of filterability. CFPP has better correlation than cloud point for biodiesel as well as diesel fuel. Biodiesel thicken at low temperatures so need cold flow improver additives to have acceptable CFPP.
12.7 Pour Point: Normally either pour point or CFPP are specified. French and Italian biodiesel specifications specify pour point whereas others specify CFFP. Since CFFP reflects more accurately the cold weather operation of fuel, it is proposed not to specify pour point for biodiesel. Pour point depressants commonly used for diesel fuel do not work for biodiesel.
12.8 Cloud Point: Cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud or haze of crystals appear in the fuel under test conditions and thus becomes important for low temperature operations. Biodiesel generally has higher cloud point than diesel fuel. Cloud point limit is not specified but ASTM D 6751 calls for reporting of the cloud point to alert the user of possible problem under cold climatic conditions.
12.9 Aromatics: Biodiesel does not contain any aromatics so aromatic limits are not specified. It may be noted that conventional aromatic determination tests used for petroleum fuels does not give correct results for biodiesel, hence aromatics in a biodiesel blend can be determined only by testing the base diesel fuel before blending.
12.10 Stability: Biodiesel age more quickly than fossil diesel fuel due to the chemical structure of fatty acids and methyl esters present in biodiesel. Typically there are up to 14 types of fatty acid methyl esters in the biodiesel. The individual proportion of presence of these esters in the fuel affects the final properties of biodiesel. Saturated fatty acid methyl esters (C14:0, C16:0,C16:0) increase cloud point, cetane number and improve stability whereas more poly-unsaturates (C18:2,C18:3) reduce cloud point, cetane number and stability. There are three types of stability criteria, which need to be studied:
Oxidation stability – more related to engine operation as engine components attain high temperatures during operation.
Storage stability
Thermal stability
12.10.1 Oxidation Stability: Poor oxidation stability can cause fuel thickening, formation of gums and sediments, which, in turn, can cause filter clogging and injector fouling. Iodine number indicates the tendency of a fuel to be unstable as it measures the presence of C=C bonds that are prone to oxidation. Generally instability increase by a factor of 1 for every C=C bond on the fatty acid chain. Thus, C18:3 are three times more unstable than C18:0 fatty acids. Oxidation stability of biodiesel varies greatly depending upon the feedstock used. In one study of 22 biodiesel samples taken from 7 European production sites, the induction period was found to vary from 1 hrs to 10 hrs.
12.10.2 Thermal Stability: Current knowledge and database is still inadequate. More information is needed in this area.
12.10.3 Storage Stability: Very little data is available on the long-term storage stability of biodiesel. Effect of presence of water, sediments, and additives on storage stability need to be investigated more. Based on the data available so far it is recommended that biodiesel and its blends should not be stored in a storage tank or vehicle tank for more than 6 months. Depending upon the storage temperature and other conditions use of appropriate antioxidants (e.g. Tenox 21, t-butylhydroquinone etc.) is suggested. The antioxidants must be properly mixed with the fuel for good effectiveness. To avoid growth of algae in fuel, water contamination need to be minimized and if necessary some biocide should be used.
Currently not all of the biodiesel standards issued mention oxidation stability. Iodine number, viscosity and neutralization number indirectly assesses it. Higher values are indicative of poor oxidation stability. Iodine number test does not pick up the stability additives if used. There is need to develop appropriate test methods for oxidation and storage stability of biodiesel. ASTM D 2274 is a good candidate test method.
12.11 Iodine Number and polyunsaturated methyl ester(C 18:3+): In diesel engines, Methyl esters have been known to cause engine oil dilution by the fuel. A high content of unsaturated fatty acids in the ester (indicated by high Iodine number) increases the danger of polymerization in the engine oil. Oil dilution decreases oil viscosity. Sudden increase in oil viscosity, as encountered in several engine tests, is attributed to oxidation and polymerization of unsaturated fuel parts entering into oil through dilution. In saturated fatty acids all the carbon is bound to two hydrogen atoms by double bonds. More the double bonds the lower is the cloud point of oil. The tendency of the fuel to be unstable can be predicted by Iodine number. Different biodiesel have different stability performance.
When iodine is introduced in the oil, the iodine attaches itself over a double bond to form
a single bond. Thus iodine number refer to the amount of iodine required to convert unsaturated oil into saturated oil. It does not refer to the amount of iodine in the oil but to the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in the fuel. ASTM D 1520 method for measurement of Iodine number does not recognize the presence of stability additive.
Iodine number is not well suited to indicate the influence of methyl ester on engine. One value of iodine number can be obtained by using several grades of unsaturated acids. So an additional parameter, linolenic acid (C18:3) content is specified and limited to 15% in Austrian Standard ON C 1191
12.12 Free and Total glycerol: The degree of conversion completeness of the vegetable oil is indicated by the amount of free and total glycerol present in the biodiesel. If the actual number is higher than the specified values, engine fouling, filter-clogging etc can occur. Manufacturing process controls are necessary to ensure low free and total glycerin. Free glycerol if present can build up at the bottom of the storage and vehicle fuel tanks.
12.13 Mono-, Di-, and Triglycerides: Most of the biodiesel standards, except Austrian and ASTM, specify a max. limit of 0,08 for Mono-glyceride. Draft EU standard calls for same limit. Di-and Triglycerides are also controlled in most of the standards. High levels of these glycerides can cause injector fouling, filter clogging etc.
12.14 Ester content: France (96.5%), Italy (98) and Sweden (98) specify a minimum eater content whereas Austrian and ASTM Standards do not specify any limit.
12.15 Alkaline matter (Na, K): Alkaline matter is controlled mainly to ensure that the catalysts used in the esterification process are properly removed.
12.16 Total contamination: Left over impurities at the time of manufacture (such as free proteins) may form solid particles and clog the fuel lines. Filtration and washing treatments at manufacturing level need to be robust.
12.17 Sulfur content: Biodiesel generally contain less than 15ppm sulfur. ASTM D 5453 test is a suitable test for such low level of sulfur. ASTM D 2622 used for sulfur determination of diesel fuels gives falsely high results when used for biodiesel. More work need to done to assess suitability of ASTM D 2622 application to B20 biodiesel blend. The increase in oxygen content of the fuel affects precision of this test method.
12.18 Lubricity: Wear due to excessive friction resulting in shortened life of diesel fuel pumps and injectors, has some times ascribed to lack of lubricity in the fuel. Numerous premature breakdown and in some cases, catastrophic failures, have occurred failures. All diesel fuel injection equipment (fuel pump and injector) of the diesel engine have reliance on diesel fuels for its lubrication, especially the Rotary (Distributor) and Common Rail type systems. The lubrication of the pump is not provided by viscosity alone but also by the lubricity property of the fuel. Even when the viscosity of the fuel is correct, several parts of the pump can wear out due to lack of lubricity. The lubricity of the fuel depends on the crude source, refining process to reduce sulfur content and the type of additives used. BOCLE (Ball on Cylinder Lubricity Evaluator) and HFFR (High Frequency Reciprocating Rig) are commonly used for evaluating the lubricity of the fuel. BOCLE is normally used for finding the lubricity fuel without additive, as it does not properly characterize the lubricity of fuels with lubricity additives. HFFR method has been adopted by Fuel Injection Manufactures for lubricity evaluation of diesel fuels and they recommend a limit of 460 microns wear scar diameter (WSD). Lower the WSD better is the lubricity of fuel. In case of BOCLE method a higher value is better. Even with 2% biodiesel mixed in diesel fuel, the WSD values comes down to around 325 micron and is sufficient to meet the lubricity requirements of the fuel injection pump (460 micron max). B100 performs still better, with a WSD of about 314 micron. With further reduction of sulfur content is diesel for Euro II and Euro IV fuels, the lubricity loss due to sulfur removal can easily be compensated by the addition of appropriate amount of biodiesel in diesel fuel.
2% addition into any conventional diesel fuel is sufficient to address the lubricity problem. It also eliminates the inherent variability associated with use of other additives to make fuel fully lubricious. Second the biodiesel is a fuel component itself- any addition of it does cause any adverse consequences. Since pure biodiesel has high lubricity, it is not specified in the specification. When biodiesel is used as lubricity blend (B2) or diesel fuel extender (B20), its lubricity characteristics has to meet the specification for the base fuel.
12.19 Sulfated Ash: Sulfated ash is controlled to ensure that all the catalysts used in the trans-esterification process are removed. Presence of ash can cause filter plugging and or injector deposits. Soluble metallic soap, un-removed catalysts and other solids are possible sources of sulfated ash in the fuel.
12.20 Acid number / Neutralization number: Acid number / Neutralization number is specified to ensure proper aging properties of the fuel and / or a good manufacturing process. Acid number reflects the presence of free fatty acids or acids used in manufacture of biodiesel. It also reflects the degradation of biodiesel due to thermal effects. For example, during the injection process several times more fuel returns from the injector than that injected into the combustion chamber of the engine. The temperature of this return fuel can, sometimes, be as high as 90o C and thus accelerate the degradation of biodiesel. The resultant high acid number can cause damage to injector and also result in deposits in fuel system and affect life of pumps and filters. Sodium hydro peroxide and sulfuric acids are highly corrosive and can cause serious, many times permanent, injuries.
12.21 Water Content: Biodiesel and its blends are susceptible to growing microbes when water is present in fuel. The solvency properties of the biodiesel can cause microbial slime to detach and clog fuel filters.
12.22 Phosphorous Content: Phosphorous can come as impurity and can affect oxidation catalyst and cause injector fouling. As more and more OEMs are going to use catalytic converters in diesel engines, it is necessary to keep the level of phosphorous in fuel low. Usually biodiesel have <1ppm phosphorus. The specification of minimum 10 ppm phosphorous content is intended to ensure compatibility with catalytic converters irrespective of the source of biodiesel.
12.23 Methanol/ethanol content: High levels of free alcohol in biodiesel cause accelerated deterioration of natural rubber seals and gaskets. Damage to fuel pumps and injectors which have natural rubber diaphragms has been very common type of failure Methanol is membrane-permeable and can cause nerve damage. Therefore control of alcohol content is required.
12.24 Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR): Carbon residue of the fuel is indicative of carbon depositing tendencies of the fuel. Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) for biodiesel is more important than that in diesel fuel because it show a high correlation with presence of free fatty acids, glycerides, soaps, polymers, higher unsaturated fatty acids, inorganic impurities and even on the additives used for pour point depression. Two methods are used to measure carbon residue:
100 % residual
10 % residual
Since most of the biodiesel boils at almost the same temperature it is difficult to get a 10% residual upon distillation. Though the 10 % CCR test is easier to do, more work need to be done before we use it in Indian specifications for biodiesel.

13 Specifications and Quality Standards: Standards are of vital importance for the producers, suppliers and users of bio-fuels. Government Authorities need approval standards for the evaluation of safety, risks and environmental protection. Standards are necessary for the approval and warrantee commitment for vehicles operated with bio- fuels and are therefore, a pre-requisite for the market introduction and commercialization of bio- fuels. Creation of standards shall help expand the market for renewable sources of energy in India. Conventionally Standards and codes for products have been developed, largely by examining the existing standards and codes in different countries and then writing standards for own country. With the formation of WTO, which seeks to eliminate discrimination of products based on national origin, and the realization that, in future, bio- fuels like ethanol and biodiesel, can become internationally traded commodities like petroleum, it is essential that a worldwide view is taken while preparing a new national standard. But at the same time, the local imperatives (such as type of raw materials etc.) must be given due consideration.
In Europe biodiesel is predominantly made from rapeseed oil and most information and data available are dealing with the rapeseed methyl ester (RME). Most of the experience in Austria, Italy, is also on RME. Germany has developed a standard for fatty acid methyl ester. Most of the Irish experience is on use of tallow fat for manufacture of biodiesel. Very little experience is available on ethyl or propyl esters. No matter what the process or feedstock used, the biodiesel produced must meet rigorous specifications to be used as a fuel in a compression ignition engine. It is not possible to recognize any blanket superiority of one feedstock over other since feedstock does not reliably predict a fuel’s final properties. Knowing that fuel adulteration is very rampant in India it is important that we ensure that chemical grade fatty acid methyl esters used for purposes such as detergent manufacture must not be allowed to use as engine fuel. A Worldwide survey of biodiesel specification was done and an attempt was made to understand the rationale behind them before proposing a norm for India.
ASTM has issued biodiesel standard D 6751 in December 2001, which covers the use of pure biodiesel (B100) into conventional diesel fuel up to 20% by volume (B20). This replaces the provisional specification PS 121 issued in1999. Austria (ON C 1191), France (JO), Italy (UNI 10635) and Germany (DIN E 51606) had issued biodiesel standards in 1997, Sweden in 1996 and a common draft standard EN 14214 for the European Union has also been announced. The new Italian biodiesel standard, which will replace UNI 10 635, has been finalized and will be released this year for public. In India, we have lots of European Engine technologies, specially that for older engines. We have also adopted the European Emission Regulations. Moreover, compared to USA diesel engines are more popular in Europe. Europe has also done expensive work on biodiesel. Production of biodiesel in Europe is much ahead of that in USA. The result is the EN14214 standard is more comprehensive than the ASTM standard. It is recommended that we adopt the EN1421112 standard for India
13.1 Test Methods for Biodiesel: Lot of work need to be done to clearly understand the requirements, accuracy and precision, and applicability of these test methods for India. For India, as far as possible, use the current BIS specifications or modify them to suit the requirements. It is important to note that, several methods are under development or in proposal stage.
13.2 Proposed Biodiesel Specifications for India: Table 16 below gives a comprehensive list of important fuel properties that have been considered for inclusion in the biodiesel fuel specification. All these properties were considered, sometime or another, by different countries but not necessarily included in the final draft.

Table 16: Fuel Properties considered:

Some of important properties specified are described below and reasons for the need to incorporate it in the fuel specification are mentioned in short. Since our feed stocks are going to be different from those used in developed countries, it was felt necessary to include all the relevant properties in the initial list for evaluation. An attempt should be made to reduce the final number of properties specified to the minimum possible. Of course, before the proposed specification for India are frozen, more deliberations would be necessary keeping in mind the local feed stocks, manufacturing and quality control techniques used. In India, we have lots of European Engine technologies, specially that for older engines. We have also adopted the European Emission Regulations. Moreover, compared to USA diesel engines are more popular in Europe. Europe has also done expensive work on biodiesel. Production of biodiesel in Europe is much ahead of that in USA. The result is the EN14214 standard is more comprehensive than the ASTM standard. It is recommended that we adopt the EN1421112 standard for India. Table 17 gives the proposed specifications for India. The column for test method is intentionally kept blank more work need to be done by the committee to understand the applicability of BIS test standards.

Table 17: Summary of Proposed BIS Standard for Biodiesel

* measure and report
** in the table means that this property needs further discussion.
***TBD means to be decided

Though the test methods used for petroleum products are available there is very little experience in the use of materials like karanja, jatropha, rice brawn oil etc. These test methods must be reviewed to ensure their applicability for biodiesel, the precision and the accuracy achievable.
13.3 Engine Warranties and biodiesel approval endorsements from engine manufacturers: Engines are designed, manufactured and warranted for a fuel that has certain specified properties. The engine manufacturers give warranty for material and workmanship of the products they make and typically recommend / define use of a fuel in their manuals. They do not warrant fuel of any kind. If there is a problem due to fuel, the fuel supplier must stand behind the customer. Therefore it is important to take endorsements from engine manufacturers for use of biodiesel and their blends.
Caterpillar and several other engine manufacturers recognize biodiesel meeting ASTM PS121, DIN 51606 Specifications. However, the stance taken by some manufactures is rather vague, such as caterpillar says it "neither approves nor prohibits use of biodiesel in their engines". For some of their engines, a blend of 5% biodiesel with diesel fuel (B5) is approved More than 5% biodiesel in diesel fuel is not covered under engine warranty. John Deere takes similar stance. Several Marine engine manufacturers of Japan, USA and Europe (like Mercuiser, Yanmar etc) endorse use of B100 as fuel. Some engine manufactures warranties the newer engines and insists on change of hoses, seals and rubber parts in their older engines. While other engine manufactures give warranties on case-by-case basis. Most of the tractor companies in Europe and U.S.A. permit use of biodiesel in their engines.
13.4 Fuel Quality Test Procedures: It is important to maintain the fuel quality within the fuel specification otherwise severe engine problems can occur. Two types of test procedures are necessary for ensuring good quality fuel to the customers:
1) Test procedures for production and supply quality of the biodiesel
2) Quick test procedures to check the quality of the fuel in field.
Table 17 gives the various test methods required to check the production and supply quality of biodiesel. Biodiesel manufacturing is essentially a batch production process. Therefore, better production and quality control methods are must for a consistent fuel quality. There is an acute need to develop tests for procedures for field testing of biofuels. This is very important in view of the large problems of fuel adulteration in India. In BIS meeting it was agreed to do field trials on biodiesel. It is recommended that these trials must investigate at least the effect of cetane number, distillation, specific gravity, aromatics, oxygen and cloud point of biodiesel and its blends

14 Marketing & Trade
14.1 Barriers for Biodiesel introduction
14.1.1 Economics: In order to promote biodiesel and to help it compete with petroleum diesel, several countries have drawn up tax support packages, for example, Germany and Italy levies no tax on biodiesel, UK has 20% lower tax, several US States imposed lower tax on fuels containing biodiesel. Soybean is the most investigated and used for energy crop for production of biodiesel. All most all the biodiesel in US and Brazil is of soybean origin. It is estimated that about 7.3 Pounds of soybean oil, which cost about 20 cents / pounds, produce about one gallon of biodiesel. Therefore, the feedstock cost currently is 1.5 US$ / Gallon of biodiesel and after processing the biodiesel costs about 2 US$ / Gallon. However, US is currently working on mustard seed program, which cost about 10 cents / Pound and cost of producing mustard biodiesel shall be around 1.0 US$ / Gallon. This compares well with current cost of petroleum diesel which is approximately 1.30 US$ / Gallon. The US program on biodiesel is driven and supported by soybean lobby as US has excess production for soybean. It is estimated that cultivation of soybean on set aside farmland in the US can fulfill 5% biodiesel introduction targets in the US. Though biodiesel has proven its credentials as a clean alternate fuel to the petroleum diesel, some barriers do remain for its large-scale commercial introduction. The biggest barrier presently is its high cost, which is approximately 1.5 times to that of petroleum diesel. The cost estimate of biodiesel is only available from the studies in US and Europe, where biodiesel has been produced on the commercial scale.
However, these estimates are based upon Soybean, Rapeseed and Sunflower oil as the primary feedstock. It has been estimated that the biodiesel from these feed stocks competes with petroleum diesel at a crude price of 35 US$ / barrel and above. No economic data is available on non-edible bio crops. Studies have been made to evaluate direct and indirect impact of biodiesel program. The National Biodiesel Board, US conducted a macro-economic study in 2001 to quantify direct and secondary economic benefits i.e. employment generation, balance of trade, positive effect on green house gas reduction and increased level of downstream processing activity. It has been concluded that taken these secondary effects into consideration the biodiesel competes with the petroleum diesel presentably and will have economic benefits in longer run.
14.1.2 Present Availability of Non-edible oils: The second barrier for introduction of biodiesel on large scale is its present availability. The biodiesel program in any country has a time lag between policy planning and actual implementation and hence the introduction could be gradual, gaining the maturity only after 4-5 years. This is especially applicable to India where Biodiesel is proposed to be made from non-edible oils. Presently, the availability of these oils is very limited and the price of such oils is quoted very high (Rs. 25-40 per kg). For successful launch of Biodiesel availability of oil on large scale has to be ensured at reasonable prices.
14.2 Marketing Frame Work for Biodiesel: Though in few isolated instances neat biodiesel (B100) has been used primarily in diesel engines on-board marine equipment, generally a blend 5-30% biodiesel in diesel has been used. France, Italy and Spain for example have been using 5% biodiesel in all conventional diesels. Biodiesel at 1-2% level has also been used as a lubricity additive for low sulphur diesel.
World experience has also indicated that biodiesel blends were first introduced either in heavily polluted cities or in remote areas producing biodiesel. The big fleets like bus companies and taxies were first to introduce biodiesel. Biodiesel mixes easily in any proportions to the conventional diesel and by virtue of its high density it can be easily mixed in a tank containing petroleum diesel. Its handling and storage is just like the petroleum diesel and no separate infrastructure is required. Therefore, the blending of biodiesel, which transported by tankers, is carried out at marketing depots. The biodiesel blends do not need separate dispensing and existing diesel dispensing station can also dispense biodiesel blends.
14.2.1 Amount of biodiesel to be blended in diesel: Use of biodiesel has been due to following factors: -
Support to agriculture sector
Part replacement of imported crude
Emission benefit
Rural development program
Lubricity improver
If the main purpose of the use of biodiesel is emission benefits, then higher percentage of biodiesel is generally used. World over about 20 – 40% biodiesel blends (B20, B40) have been used for getting appreciable emission benefits. However, this approach needs OEM’s approvals as some rubber seals etc. need changing for use of higher percentage of biodiesel. The lubricity benefits of using biodiesel, specially in ultra low Sulphur Diesel, can be obtained even at a very percent addition e.g. 0.5–1.0%. For support to agriculture sector and for part replacement of imported crude the amount of biodiesel to be blended in diesel will depend upon:
a) Availability of biodiesel
b) Cost of biodiesel and
c) Technical acceptability
In Indian context, presently the availability of feed stock (non-edible vegetable oils) is limited. However, with the massive plantation plans, it is envisaged that feed stock shall be available in large amount. This full scale availability of feed stock can be possible after a time lag of 4–5 years. It is also understood that a large emulsified potential of various oil bearing seeds is available in the country and there are plans to collect these materials. In view of above, it is recommended that biodiesel should be introduced generally in our country starting from a low percent addition. The initial %age could be as low as 2% to 5% of biodiesel and this can be gradually increased when feed stock is available. France is using 5% biodiesel which is blended in all the diesel sold in that country.
14.2.2 Marketing framework: The blending of biodiesel can be taken up at the depot level of the diesel distribution and marketing company. However, it should be emphasized that marketing of biodiesel blended diesel should be done as an organized trade and this activity should be handed by the diesel distributing companies. The biodiesel to be blended has to mandatory tested for its quality. This will also keep in check any adulteration activity. The storage of biodiesel does not need any specialized tanking and the storage tanks used for biodiesel can also be used for biodiesel. The blending of biodiesel is also a simple affair and the circulatory pumps generally available in any diesel storage depot are sufficient to make a homogenous blend. Another option for marketing of biodiesel blended diesel is for specialized fleet operations e.g. bus fleets etc. For this blending may be taken up at these locations
14.3 Trade of Biodiesel: For making available fuel grade biodiesel the following sequence of events need to be firmed up.
a) Availability of raw material of desired quality
b) Chemical treatment to produce biodiesel
c) Testing of biodiesel
d) Transportation of biodiesel to selected locations for blending
e) Blending of Biodiesel into diesel
f) Financial support
14.3.1 Availability of raw material of desired quality: For a National level Biodiesel program availability of raw vegetable oil for conversion to Biodiesel needs to be ensured. Presently, the oil is available in limited quantity and that to on seasonal basis. There is need to identify the oil seeds extractors and the parties working in the area of extraction of oils may be contacted.
14.3.2Chemical treatment to produce Biodiesel: Vegetable oil once extracted from the seed need a chemical treatment called Trans-esterification with lower alcohol (Methanol or Ethanol) in order to make fuel grade Biodiesel. Presently this technology is available only at laboratory scale or at best on the bench scale. Though this chemical process is simple and well understood whoever there is a need to develop commercial scale plants. These plants could be integrated with oil extractions plants so as to reduce cost by sharing of utilities. Though both batch scale and continuous type plants are used world over, it may be better to start with batch type plants in order to reduce initial cost. An estimate of 1 ton per day batch plant by IISC Bangalore, is Rs. 6.5 lakh.
14.3.3 Testing of Biodiesel: Biodiesel produce must meet the specifications (ASTM D – 6751) in order to use it as a fuel component for transportation fuel. This specification requires elaborate testing and these tests can be done with the association of diesel marketing companies. It is recommended that some critical tests for example water content and acidity may be done at the plant level while the other test could be done at the centralized location.
14.3.4 Transportation of biodiesel to selected locations for blending: Transportation of Biodiesel does not require any special precautions and can be transported by tankers just as the diesel. In order to reduce the cost the initial introduction of Biodiesel should be done at locations near to the production site.
14.3.5 Blending of Biodiesel into diesel: Blending at depot level may be a good solution for initial selective introduction of Biodiesel at some locations. Biodiesel does not require any special storage or handling precautions whoever storage tanks and circulatory pumps for mixing need to be stationed at the blending site.
14.3.6 Financial support: Taxation and cross-country movement of materials would need attention. The price of biodiesel would have to be worked out. Though it is expected to be with in a narrow range of HSD, the duty structure will have to be so designed that the price of Biodiesel is slightly lower than that of the HSD. Every country which has promoted the use of biodiesel has followed this route in order to make biodiesel compete with diesel. However, macro-economics studies have proved that direct and indirect impact of biodiesel e.g. employment generation, balance of trade, emission benefits etc are substantial and need to be accounted for while considering the duty structure on Biodiesel and HSD.

15 Conclusion: It is clear by now that for us blending of Biodiesel produced from non-edible vegetable oil with conventional diesel i.e. H.S.D. is unavoidable to achieve the objectives of emission standards, regeneration of degraded lands, poverty alleviation, employment generation, better use of natural resources etc. A National Mission is, therefore, proposed to be launched. The potential, viability and details of the National Mission are discussed hereafter.
Since diesel constitutes 50% of oil consumption chiefly for transportation and other purposes, its demand is integrally related to economic growth and is seen as a growth inducing factor. The estimated increase of demand for diesel from the 2001-02 level of 38.815 Million tons to 52.324 Million tons in 2006-7 and 66.095 Million tons shows a massive hike of 34% to 70% respectively over 2001-02 level in physical terms which will lead to increase of crude oil import from the present level of 85 Million tons to 147 Million tons per annum raising the oil import bill from US $ 13.3 Billion to over US $ 20 Billion. As emissions from automotive engines using diesel is a major source of air pollution in urban areas, enforcement of stricter emission norms has become a national priority. Biodiesel has been accepted as clean alternative fuel all over the world. Though biodiesel could be produced from soya bean, rapeseed, sunflower, the source of edible oil, existing shortage of edible oil in the country and its price, would not make these crops viable for use as feed stock for production of biodiesel. Similarly the existing output of 5.253 Million tons of Tree borne oil seeds have been put to different uses and cannot contribute to organized production of bio diesel on account of a number of factors including scattered location, low yield and consequently low level of seed collection of 15-20% of total exploitable seeds.
The rationale of taking up a major program for the production of biodiesel in India for blending with diesel lies in the context of:
1. Biodiesel being superior fuel from the environmental point of view;
2. use of biodiesel becomes compelling in view of the tightening of automotive vehicle emission standards and court interventions;
3. addressing global concern relating to containing Carbon emissions for mitigation of climate change;
4. providing nutrients to soil, by using oil cake as manure;
5. reducing import of oil and consequentially reducing import and improving energy security;
6. greening the country through Jatropha curcas plantation; and
7. generation of gainful employment to the people.
Similar to the ethanol for blending with petrol, bio diesel is a substitute for petroleum diesel, the main liquid fuel for our heavy vehicles, railways, trucks, tractors, marine engines etc.
Jatropha Curcas – Source of Biodiesel: There are many tree species which bear seeds rich in oil. Of these some promising tree species have been evaluated and it has been found that there are a number of them such as Jatropha curcas and Pongamia Pinnata (‘Honge’ or ‘Karanja’) which would be very suitable in our conditions. However, Jatropha curcas has been found the most suitable tree specie for the reasons summarized below:
It can be grown as a quick yielding plant even in adverse land situations viz. Degraded and barren lands under forest and non-forest use, dry and drought prone areas, marginal lands and as agro forestry crop. It can be planted on fallow lands and along farmers field boundaries as hedge because it does not grow too tall as well as on vacant lands alongside railways, highways, irrigation canals and unused lands in townships etc. under Public/Private Sector Undertakings.
The seeds of Jatropha are available during the non-rainy season, which facilitates better collection and processing. The cost of plantation is largely incurred in the first year and improved planting material can make a huge difference in yield.
Raising Jatropha plant and its maintenance creates jobs for the rural poor, particularly the land less, in plantation and primary processing through expellers.
It has multiple uses and after the extraction of oil from the seeds, the oil cake left behind is an excellent organic manure, the bio mass of Jatropha curcas enriches the soil and it can also be put to other uses.
Retains soil moisture and improve land capability and environment.
Jatropha adds to the capital stock of the farmers and the community, for sustainable generation of income and employment.
Economics of Jatropha Biodiesel: In India, it is estimated that cost of Biodiesel produced by trans-esterification of oil obtained from Jatropha Curcas oil-seeds shall be approximately same as that of petroleum diesel. On The cost of Biodiesel varies between Rs. 16.59 –14.98 per liter. Assumptions are that the seed contains 35% oil, oil extraction will be 91-92%, 1.05 Kg of oil will be required to produce 1 Kg of Biodiesel, recovery from sale of glycerol will be at the rate of Rs. 40-60 per Kg. The price of Glycerol is likely to be depressed with processing of such large quantities of oil and consequent production of Glycerol raising the cost of Biodiesel. However, new applications are likely to be found creating additional demand and stabilizing its price. With volatility in the price of crude, the use of Biodiesel is economically feasible and a strategic option.
Target of biodiesel production: It is estimated that Petroleum Diesel Demand by the end of 10th Plan (in 2006-07) shall be 52.33 million tons. In order to achieve 5% replacement of petroleum diesel by biodiesel by the year 2006-07, there is need to bring minimum 2.29 million ha area under Jatropha curcas plantation.
Quality Standards & Specifications: The formulation of standards and specifications for biodiesel in its pure form and as blends, neutral to feed stock used to produce biodiesel, is under the consideration of the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). They are proposed to be based on standards adopted by European Union. It is necessary that the consent of the vehicle, engine and Fuel Injection manufactures is taken before finalizing the standards and introducing change of fuel. Test methods also need to be prescribed.
Research and Development Issues: A number of institutions have been engaged in India in looking in to the various aspects of bio-fuels. For example, IOC R&D has already set up a pilot biodiesel production facility and Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd have a pilot plant utilizing Karanj for biodiesel production. Some areas where R&D efforts are needed in the fields of Ethanol and Biodiesel are mentioned below. In the field of Biodiesel, presence of moisture or high FFA content has posed problems. Other subjects needing attention are briefly mentioned below:
Raw Material ( Jatropha curcas seed and oil): Selection of improved germ plasm material for quality and quantity of oil; developing agro-technologies for different agro-climatic regions; total chemical analysis of all potential non-edible oils with special reference to Jatropha curcas Oil. Testing of Biodiesel from various feed stocks and generation of comparative data on fuel composition, emissions, material compatibility etc.
Production Technology: Research efforts for perfecting an efficient chemical/ catalyst conversion process. Alternate uses of by-products i.e. glycerol and meal cake.
Utilization as Fuel: Data generation & production of biodiesel from all possible feed stocks ; response of different available additives and their dosages on the biodiesel ; effect of biodiesel on elastomers, corrosion etc ; stability of Bio diesel - oxidation stability, thermal stability and storage stability; engine performance and emissions based on different feed stock based Biodiesel; toxicological studies and tests to check adulteration. Toxicological study is a pre-requisite for introduction of any fuel and should be carried out. Procedure for detecting percentage of Biodiesel in the blended fuel and to check adulteration of the fuel should also be developed.
Plants in operation/ under construction: Plants with different capacities and technologies are currently available and used in the industrial production of biodiesel. A number of units are manufacturing biodiesel worldwide using various feed stock including Jatropha oil.
Blending of Esters & Diesel: The most common blending ratio is 80% conventional diesel fuel and 20% vegetable oil ester (biodiesel), also termed "B20," as significant emission reductions are achieved with these blends are stable, simple to prepare and no engine problems are encountered. One limitation to the use of biodiesel is its tendency to crystallize at low temperatures below 0°C. causing problems in fuel pumping and engine operation. One solution to this problem may be the use of branched-chain esters, such as isopropyl esters. Another method to improve the cold flow properties of vegetable oil esters is to remove high- melting saturated esters by inducing crystallization with cooling, a process known as winterization. These aspects need to be studied.
Storage & handling of Biodiesel: As a general rule blends of biodiesel and petroleum diesel should be treated like petroleum diesel and pose no problems There is no aromatic hydrocarbon (benzene, toluene, xylene) or chlorinated hydrocarbons. There is no lead or sulphur to react and release any harmful or corrosive gases. However, in case of biodiesel blends significant fumes released by benzene and other aromatics present in the base diesel fuel can continue.
Engine Development & Modifications: Engine oil dilution is a potential problem with biodiesel since it is more prone to oxidation and polymerization than diesel fuel. The presence of biodiesel in engine could cause thick sludge to occur with the consequence that the oil becomes too thick to pump. Engine oil formulations need to be studied to minimize the effect of dilution with biodiesel keeping in mind that the light duty diesel engines are sufficiently different from heavy duty diesel engines in many aspects including emission behavior.
Marketing & Trade: The role of marketing companies in distribution, pricing, taxation,, interstate movement and the direct and indirect impact of biodiesel e.g. employment generation, balance of trade, emission benefits etc need to be studied.
Recommendations: It is clear that the country must move towards the use of biofuels - ethanol as substitute for motor spirit and biodiesel for diesel. It implies the production of biodiesel in 2011-12 and coverage of land with Jatropha curcas as below:
3.25million metric tons for blending @ 5% and coverage of area of 2.9 million Ha
6.5 million metric tons for blending @ 10% and coverage of area of 5.8 million Ha
13 million metric tons for blending @ 20 %, and coverage of area of 11.2 million Ha

Recommendations For Biodiesel

• A National Mission on Biodiesel should be launched immediately with the objective of producing biodiesel required for blending to the extent of 20% with HSD in 2011- 12.

• As its Phase I, a demonstration project may be taken up on 4 lakh hectares in eight States. Of this area two lakh hectare of plantation may be taken up on under stocked forest lands placed under the management of Joint Forest Management Committees in four States (Tamilnadu, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Tripura) and two lakh hectare of plantation on non forest lands spread over four states (U.P., Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh). In addition, the Ministry of Rural Development may take up plantation under the IWDP and other poverty alleviation programs as the program elements of the two programs are similar.

• The biodiesel demonstration project is expected to produce 1.5 million tons of seed and 0.48 million tons of oil from the year 3 and will generate by 2007 employment of 127.6 million man-days in plantation and 36.8 million man-days per annum on sustained basis in seed collection and 3680 Person Years of employment for running seed collection and oil extraction centers. On an overall basis, the employment under the Project will directly enable 5.50 lakh rural poor families to escape poverty. The entire project will be community and farmer driven from plantation up to primary processing stage involving seed collection, procurement and oil extraction at the village level. The esterification factory will be set up by a private entrepreneur availing financing facilities under the existing policies.

• The national Mission on Biodiesel may be based on Jatropha as it has many advantages over other species including Karanja (Pongamia Pinnatta). To mention a few, it has very high oil content, has very small gestation period, is hardy, grows on good and degraded lands and in low and high rainfall areas, the seed comes in non rainy season and the tree is not very high making collection of seed convenient.

• The Demonstration Project may be completed by 2007. The next phase of the National Mission should be people driven and should involve a self sustaining expansion of plantation and setting up of corresponding facilities for seed collection, oil extraction, esterification etc. The Government should act mainly as a facilitator providing incentives as may be necessary.

• Efforts should be made to get external funding for Phase II of the national Mission.

• The Demonstration Project under the National Mission may be funded by the Government.

• As the implementation of the Demonstration Project makes progress and Biodiesel starts becoming available, a beginning should be made with 5% blending in areas where the production of Biodiesel is taken up by the year 2005.

Micro missions Under National Mission: The National Mission may be implemented in a mission mode. The Demonstration Project may consist of a number of micro-missions as below:
Micro mission on Plantation on Forest And Adjoining Lands This plantation may be undertaken by the Forest Departments in the four states included in the Demonstration Project through the JFM Committees. The Ministry of Environment & Forests will be the nodal Agency for this micro mission.
Micro mission on Plantation on Non-forest Lands – Implementation by NOVOD: The plantation on non-forest lands in four States identified under 6.9.2 (b), the Demonstration Project may be undertaken with NOVOD under the Ministry of Agriculture playing the nodal role.
Micro mission on Plantation Not Covered By The Above Two Micro missions: Implementation by Ministry of Rural Development: Since Jatropha curcas plantation has all round implications for poverty alleviation and upgradation of land resources, various programs; such as IWDP, SGSY, SGRY, PMGY etc. could include Jatropha plantation as a part of their program to help the farmers to escape poverty for which necessary funds are already provided under the Plans of the respective Ministries. Similarly, KVIC, SIDBI, NABARD can step in to support procurement of seeds, oil extraction activity at the village level. The Ministry of Rural Development and its two departments namely the Department of Rural Development and the Department of Land Resources and CAPART may be made responsible for plantation in degraded and wastelands through out the country but not included in the Micro mission to be implemented by NOVOD. Districts outside the districts included in Micro mission to be implemented by NOVOD through the Panchayats and NGOs by using the funds available under IWDP, SGRY and SGSY etc
Micro mission on Procurement of Seed and Oil Extraction: KVIC under the Department of Agro and Rural Industries should be the nodal agency for encouraging and supporting this activity. It will do the extension work, provide all help in the setting up of the Seed procurement and oil Expelling Centers, identify suitable technology of oil expelling units and assist in obtaining finance from the financial institutions.
Micro mission on Trans-esterification, Blending and Trade: Arrangements to ensure creation of facilities for trans-esterification of oil in to biodiesel and its blending with diesel may be the responsibility of the Ministry of Petroleum.
Micro mission on Research and Development: The problems needing solution as identified above will need R&D. The institutions under ICAR, ICFRE, CSIR, Research and Training Institutions supported by the GoI, State Agriculture Universities and interested institutions in the industry – both public sector and private sector- other organizations will be invited to make their contribution.
Financing for Demonstration Project:
The total cost has been estimated to be Rs. 1496 Crore.
For the plantation component of the Demonstration Project (Rs 1200 Crore), the funds need to come from the Government. As yet, the people are not aware of the potential of Jatropha curcas to give economic return and that too in a short time from degraded / unproductive lands, fallow lands and field boundaries. Hence to begin with, the funds should be provided by the government. There will be a number of options for raising the required funds. The manner in which the required funds would be mobilized will be decided by the Coordination Committee
For the component of setting up Seed Collection Center and Oil extraction unit, the funds could be a mix of entrepreneurs’ own contribution (margin money), subsidy and loan from NABARD and SIDBI in the ratio of 10:30:60. The amount of subsidy will again have to be provided by the Government.
For the Trans-esterification Unit, it is a commercial venture involving relatively large sum of money (Rs. 75 Crore). It is expected that the oil companies guided by the Ministry of Petroleum will induce private sector to set up such plants with their own funds being supplemented by funds from Financial Institutions.
The Administrative Expenses of the mission should be borne by the Government.
Funds for R&D will need to be provided under the Mission. Funds available for R&D with the various Ministries, Industry and their Associations, R&D institutions should be used. However, dedicated funds to be provided by the Government for R&D have been proposed.
Assumptions:
§ The propagation of Jatropha curcas will be done through nursery to ensure superior germ plasm, high rate of survival, planting of a healthy and vigorously growing plant and achieve start of production of seed in the second year of planting.
§ The plant density will be 2500 per hectare.
§ For mixed plantation or agro forestry 2500 plants will be deemed to cover one hectare of land even though the total coverage is much more. Hence wherever ‘hectare’ is used in the context of jatropha plantation it is notional hectare.
§ While under very good conditions the seed production is reported to be as high as 5 kg/tree or 12.5 tons per hectare and in rain fed and poor soils as low as 1.5 tons/hectare, we have assumed average conditions and soils and the production of seed as 1500 gms per tree corresponding to 3.75 tons per hectare.
§ The oil content will be 35% by weight of seed and extraction efficiency will be 91%. This works out to oil recovery of 32% implying that one kg of oil will be produced by 3.125 kg of seed. The price of seed has been assumed to be Rs. 5 per Kg.
§ One hectare of Jatropha Plantation on an average will produce 3.75 tons of seed yielding 1.2 tons of oil.
§ At the end of two years Jatropha plant will give seed to its full potential. Hence four lakh hectares will produce 4.8 lakh tons of oil and 10.2 lakh tons of compost.
§ After the program has been approved nurseries will be set up and the seedlings will be available next year for plantation. The availability of biodiesel will start in the year 2005-6.
Financing for Phase II-Self sustaining Expansion of Biodiesel - Preparation of Project: In the last year of the Demonstration Project i.e., in 2006-07, on the basis of experience gained, a project will be formulated for Phase II of the National Mission. The villagers are expected to grow Jatropha curcas plantation on their fields as agro- forestry crop. A scheme of margin money, subsidy and loan may need to be instituted. Companies having lands could be encouraged to undertake Jatropha curcas plantation. They may be given technical advice and elite planting material.
Funds for plantation in degraded forests through JFM could come from the JFM members provided seed pattas can be given to each member who may be then induced to spend his own money as margin money and the remainder could be a combination of subsidy from the government and loan from financial institutions.
The funds for the Seed Collection Centers and oil extraction units, Trans-esterification units and R&D will be mobilized in the same manner as during the Demonstration Project (Phase I).
External Funding: It is also noted that since biodiesel program will address global environmental concerns and will make a definite impact on poverty alleviation within a short period it is likely to attract the support of bilateral and multilateral funding agencies. While there is no need for external funding at the stage of the Demonstration Project, for Phase II, efforts should be made to obtain external funding on the basis of the project that will be formulated.
Institutional; Arrangement For the National Mission & Demonstration Project: A Coordination Committee under the Chairmanship of the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission and a Steering Committee of officials to be served by a compact cell in the Planning Commission may be set up.
Legislative Aspects: In the beginning there is need for flexibility as a very rigid legal regime may hamper the development of biofuels in India. Hence it is proposed that a separate legislation on biofuels need not be considered at this stage and the needed legal requirements may be met by using the already available statutes.